Medicinal plants have shaped healthcare throughout history and continue to underpin modern medicine today. Examples of some of the most important drugs originate from plants, including:

• Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia), the source of the anticancer drug taxol
• Sweet Annie (Artemisia annua), which yielded artemisinin for malaria treatment
• Opium poppy (Papaver somniferum), the origin of morphine
• Autumn crocus (Colchicum autumnale), used to treat gout and inflammatory conditions

Beyond these well-known examples, many other medicinal plant species remain underexplored, representing valuable potential for future therapeutic discoveries.

Medicinal plants also play a vital ecological and social role. They support biodiversity, pollinators, and soil health (1-3), and form the backbone of traditional healthcare systems and local economies—particularly in rural and Indigenous communities (4). Knowledge passed down through generations has guided the use of plants, such as snowdrop species (Galanthus spp.), inspiring neurological treatments, and Chinese angelica (Angelica sinensis), which remains central to traditional Chinese medicine (5,6). Protecting medicinal plants, therefore, means protecting health, culture, and livelihoods — now and for generations to come.

Despite their importance, medicinal plants are increasingly at risk. Specifically, our analysis reveals clear and consistent patterns in how medicinal plants are responding to climate change. Drawing on a scoping review of 367 medicinal plant species, we found that the most common predicted impact is the loss of suitable habitat, affecting 131 species, largely driven by changes in precipitation patterns and elevation.

Range shifts were observed in 97 species, with many plants moving toward higher altitudes and latitudes. In comparison, 73 species showed an increase in suitable habitat—suggesting that climate change may create new opportunities for a limited number of plants (Figure 1) (7).

These distributional changes have direct implications for the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries, with knock-on effects throughout herbal value chains. Many of the most studied medicinal plants — whether cultivated or wild-harvested — are susceptible to climate-driven changes in temperature and rainfall. This includes species such as jatamansi (Nardostachys jatamansi), chonglou (Paris polyphylla), chuan bei mu (Fritillaria cirrhosa), and ma huang (Ephedra sinica). As a result, regions once considered reliable sources may become less productive or unsuitable, leading to reduced yields, supply disruptions, and increased uncertainty in sourcing raw plant materials. At the same time, the loss of vulnerable species limits opportunities to discover new therapeutic agents, narrowing the future potential of plant-based innovation.

Climate-driven shifts also pose significant challenges for geographical indications (GIs), including traditional concepts such as Daodi and European notions of provenance and terroir, which link product quality to specific ecological and cultural conditions. As climates change, the environmental foundations that give these regions their distinctive phytochemical profiles may no longer hold. Established GI zones may therefore need to adapt, relocate, or be redefined — raising important questions about quality standards, authenticity, and regulation (8).

Global warming may significantly alter the production of bioactive metabolites and marker compounds in medicinal and aromatic plants by increasing potential evapotranspiration due to elevated temperatures, which in turn accelerates soil drying (9). The resulting changes in phytochemical profiles are highly variable and depend on the plant species, the specific type of compounds, as well as the intensity and duration of drought stress (10).

Moderate drought often enhances the accumulation of various secondary metabolites, especially those with antioxidant properties. This is attributed to the induction of mild oxidative stress, which triggers the biosynthesis of protective compounds such as phenolics and flavonoids to scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS) (11). When drought becomes prolonged and severe, plant metabolic processes are significantly disrupted (12). This contrasting pattern was evident in several species reviewed. For example, under water deficit conditions, both balangu (Lallemantia royleana) and Persian lilac (Melia azedarach) exhibited increased phenolic and flavonoid content (13,14).

However, in broadleaved lavender (Lavandula latifolia), drought conditions resulted in decreased levels of specific metabolites such as coumaric and salvianic acids (15).

As a major contributor to climate change, elevated CO₂ and temperature exhibit mixed results; in certain cases, they can enhance the production of some compounds while suppressing others, due to complex carbon allocation and temperature sensitivities (81). High temperatures alone reduce the levels of several secondary metabolites, likely due to metabolic shifts that favour survival over defence (16).

Changes in precipitation also influence metabolite levels, with reduced rainfall often linked to a decline in compound diversity, particularly in drought-sensitive species (17). In addition, temperature stress elevates volatile organic compounds, suggesting an upregulation of stress signaling or defense responses (18). 

These fluctuations in secondary bioactive metabolite and marker compound profiles could impact the potential risks and benefits of medicinal plants. Increased levels of certain compounds could enhance antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, or antimicrobial activity, while a decline in key bioactive may compromise the potential effectiveness of traditional and plant-derived preparations (19,20).

Similarly, the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries face significant challenges. Drought, for instance, alters the synthesis of essential oils, phenolic compounds, and flavonoids, key compounds in skincare, personal, and healthcare products. Changes in the levels of bioactive metabolites or marker compounds, such as linalool, linalyl acetate, α-pinene, and borneol in lavender (21) or camphor and linalool in basil (Ocimum basilicum), as well as various compounds in rosemary (Salvia rosmarinus), due to drought, and/or heat stress, could explain these biochemical shifts (22,23).

These phytochemical shifts (including changes in the levels of bioactive metabolites or marker compounds) can affect the quality (including the safety and efficacy of plant-derived medical products) and sensory properties of cosmetic and healthcare products (21).

Overall, climate-driven changes in bioactive metabolites raise important questions about quality, safety, and consistency. While some plants may benefit from moderate stress, others may lose critical properties. At present, simple predictions are not possible, highlighting the need for longer-term and comparative research.

Climate change is increasingly undermining both biodiversity and the traditional healthcare systems that depend on medicinal plants. For instance, in the Central Himalayas, rising temperatures and shifting rainfall have advanced flowering and fruiting times by several weeks, disrupting culturally rooted harvesting practices and reducing the availability and effectiveness of key medicinal species. Traditional healers report growing reliance on substitute plants, which are often significantly less effective (24).

Similar patterns are emerging in northern Thailand, where medicinal plants used by Karen communities — particularly in women’s reproductive healthcare — are projected to lose much of their suitable habitat in the coming decades (25). Comparable challenges are faced by the Shan people and forest-dependent communities near the Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary, where limited access to formal healthcare increases reliance on traditional medicine (26).

As climate change alters the distribution, timing, and potency of medicinal plants, the resilience of these community-based healthcare systems is coming under increasing strain.

Safeguarding medicinal plants in a changing climate requires coordinated action across policy, conservation, industry, and communities: 

• Climate-resilient cultivation and agroforestry: Diversified cultivation systems and agroforestry can reduce pressure on wild populations while strengthening ecosystem resilience, but wider adoption will require investment and integration into land-use planning.
• Genetic conservation and species management: Seed banks, tissue culture, and germplasm conservation offer critical insurance against loss, but must be paired with fair benefit-sharing and livelihood support.
• Community-led and participatory conservation: Recognising Traditional Ecological Knowledge and supporting local stewardship has proven more effective than top-down approaches.
• Stronger policy frameworks and incentives: Clear regulation and economic incentives — such as Payments for Ecosystem Services — can reduce illegal harvesting while supporting sustainable trade.
• Research, training, and capacity building: Knowledge gaps remain across many medicinal-plant-producing regions. Long-term monitoring, targeted funding, and specialist training are essential to translate research into meaningful action.

Medicinal plants are a shared global resource, but their future depends on the choices we make today. Climate change has transformed sustainability from an environmental concern into a health, cultural, and economic imperative. By supporting responsible sourcing, sustainable cultivation, and informed policy, we can help ensure that medicinal plants continue to support the well-being and health of people and planet.  

Protecting medicinal plants today safeguards healing possibilities that cannot be recovered once lost.”

1. Morton EM, Rafferty NE. Plant–pollinator interactions under climate change: the use of spatial and temporal transplants. Appl Plant Sci. 2017;5(6):1600133. https://doi.org/10.3732/apps.1600133 
2. Dybzinski R, Fargione JE, Zak DR, Fornara D, Tilman D. Soil fertility increases with plant species diversity in a long-term biodiversity experiment. Oecologia. 2008;158(1):85-93. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-008-1123-x 
3. Tomlinson TR, Akerele O, eds. Medicinal Plants: Their Role in Health and Biodiversity. University of Pennsylvania Press; 2015. 
4. Heinrich M, Ankli A, Frei B, Weimann C, Sticher O. Medicinal plants in Mexico: healers’ consensus and cultural importance. Soc Sci Med. 1998;47(11):1859-1871. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(98)00181-6 
5. Heinrich M, Teoh HL. Galanthamine from snowdrop—the development of a modern drug against Alzheimer’s disease from local Caucasian knowledge. J Ethnopharmacol. 2004;92(2-3):147-162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2004.02.012 
6. Lin HQ, Gong AG, Wang HY, et al. Danggui Buxue Tang (Astragali Radix and Angelicae Sinensis Radix) for menopausal symptoms: a review. J Ethnopharmacol. 2017;199:205-210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2017.01.044 
7. Takubessi MI, Jalil B, Heinrich M. The impact of climate change on medicinal plants and natural products: a scoping review. Front Pharmacol. 2025;16:1697581. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2025.1697581 
8. Brinckmann JA. Geographical indications for medicinal plants: globalization, climate change, quality and market implications for geo-authentic botanicals. World J Tradit Chin Med. 2015;1(1):16-23. https://doi.org/10.15806/j.issn.2311-8571.2014.0020 
9. Trenberth KE, Dai A, van der Schrier G, et al. Global warming and changes in drought. Nat Clim Chang. 2014;4(1):17-22. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2067 
10. Tan U, Gören HK. Comprehensive evaluation of drought stress on medicinal plants: a meta-analysis. PeerJ. 2024;12:e17801. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.17801 
11. Ai Q, Dai A, Han M, Yang L, Liu C. Moderate drought stress interferes with the physiological state and promotes the accumulation of isoflavone in reproductive Iris domestica rhizomes. Agronomy. 2024;14(8):1730. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14081730 
12. Li T, Tiiva P, Rinnan Å, Julkunen-Tiitto R, Michelsen A, Rinnan R. Long-term effects of elevated CO2, nighttime warming and drought on plant secondary metabolites in a temperate heath ecosystem. Ann Bot. 2020;125(7):1065-1075. https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcaa037 
13. Omidi H, Shams H, Seif Sahandi M, Rajabian T. Balangu (Lallemantia sp.) growth and physiology under field drought conditions affecting plant medicinal content. Plant Physiol Biochem. 2018;130:641-646. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plaphy.2018.07.033 
14. Dias MC, Pinto DCGA, Costa M, Araújo M, Santos C, Silva AMS. Phytochemical and antioxidant profile of the medicinal plant Melia azedarach subjected to water deficit conditions. Int J Mol Sci. 2022;23(21):13611. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms232113611 
15. Cáceres-Cevallos GJ, Albacete-Moreno AA, Ferreres F, Gil-Izquierdo Á, Jordán MJ. Evaluation of the physiological parameters in Lavandula latifolia Medik. under water deficit for preselection of elite drought-resistant plants. Ind Crops Prod. 2023;199:116742. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2023.116742 
16. Li ZG. Mechanisms of plant adaptation and tolerance to heat stress. In: Hasanuzzaman M, ed. Plant Ecophysiology and Adaptation under Climate Change: Mechanisms and Perspectives II: Mechanisms of Adaptation and Stress Amelioration. Springer; 2020:39-59. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2172-0_3 
17. Prinsloo G, Nogemane N. The effects of season and water availability on chemical composition, secondary metabolites and biological activity in plants. Phytochem Rev. 2018;17(4):889-902. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11101-018-9567-z 
18. Midzi J, Jeffery DW, Baumann U, Rogiers S, Tyerman SD, Pagay V. Stress-induced volatile emissions and signalling in inter-plant communication. Plants (Basel). 2022;11(19):2566. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11192566 
19. Kumar S, Yadav A, Yadav M, Yadav JP. Effect of climate change on phytochemical diversity, total phenolic content and in vitro antioxidant activity of Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f. BMC Res Notes. 2017;10(1):60. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13104-017-2385-3 
20. Kaur T, Bhat R, Vyas D. Effect of contrasting climates on antioxidant and bioactive constituents in five medicinal herbs in Western Himalayas. J Mt Sci. 2016;13(3):484-492. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-014-3380-y 
21. Jalil B, Heinrich M. Pharmaceutical quality of herbal medicinal products and dietary supplements—a case study with oral solid formulations containing Lavandula species. Eur J Pharm Sci. 2025;208:107042. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejps.2025.107042 
22. Kulak M. Recurrent drought stress effects on essential oil profile of Lamiaceae plants: an approach regarding stress memory. Ind Crops Prod. 2020;154:112695. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2020.112695 
23. Sarmoum R, Haid S, Biche M, Djazouli Z, Zebib B, Merah O. Effect of salinity and water stress on the essential oil components of rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.). Agronomy. 2019;9(5):214. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy9050214 
24. Maikhuri RK, Phondani PC, Dhyani D, Rawat LS, Jha NK, Kandari LS. Assessment of climate change impacts and its implications on medicinal plants-based traditional healthcare system in Central Himalaya, India. Iran J Sci Technol Trans A Sci. 2018;42(4):1827-1835. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40995-017-0354-2 
25. Tangjitman K, Wongsawad C, Kamwong K, Sukkho T, Trisonthi C. Ethnomedicinal plants used for digestive system disorders by the Karen of northern Thailand. Songklanakarin J Sci Technol. 2015;37(3):369-379. 
26. Rahman MH, Roy B, Chowdhury GM, Hasan A, Saimun MSR. Medicinal plant sources and traditional healthcare practices of forest-dependent communities in and around Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary in southeastern Bangladesh. Environ Sustain. 2022;5(2):207-241. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42398-022-00230-z

Since ancient times, this resin has been valued for its medicinal properties, with the Sumerians using it for the treatment of tooth infection and intestinal worms as far back as 1100 BC (2). In the bible it is famously mentioned as one of the three gifts the wise men brought to the birth of Jesus.

In ancient Egypt, it was used as an ingredient in embalming fluid, in the Middle East its use included the treatment of wounds and to fight infections, and in Ayurvedic medicine, myrrh has long been used to treat problems such as gingivitis, mouth ulcers, and pharyngitis (3). Today, it is still commonly used as an analgesic, antiseptic, astringent, anthelmintic, carminative, emmenagogue, and as an expectorant (2).

Further to its value as medicine, myrhh has a long history of use as an incense and perfume. The world’s oldest perfume factory, dating back over 4,000 years to 1850 BCE, was discovered in Pyrgos-Mavroraki, Cyprus, by Italian archaeologists in 2003–2004. This massive Bronze Age industrial site featured dozens of stills, mixing bowls, and funnel bottles. Scents were created using various ingredients, including lavender, rosemary, pine, coriander, and myrrh. 

Today myrrh can be commonly found in incense, cosmetic products, perfumes, mouthwashes and toothpastes, soaps and shampoos, aromatherapy products and as a flavouring agent in beverages, candy, baked goods, chewing gum, gelatins, frozen desserts, puddings, soft drinks, and meat products all over the world (4). This shows that while perhaps myrrh is not seen in the same way as it was thousands of years ago, it is still a highly valued commodity. 

There are over 200 different species of myrrh, though Commiphora myrrha is the most commonly used species worldwide. Guggul (Commiphora wightii) is the more commonly used species of myrrh in the Ayurvedic tradition.

And Opoponax (Commiphora guidotti) is very commonly used in the perfume industry, and has a much sweeter aroma than C. myrrha. Balm of Gilead (Commiphora gileadensis) is, just like myrrh mentioned in the Bible, and has a history of use in Christian, Jewish and Muslim traditions where it was used as a medicine.

Most of the myrrh (C. myrrha) used today comes from the regions of Somalia and Ethiopia, with about 90% percent of the world’s myrrh supply coming from Somali trees (1).

Similar to frankincense, myrrh used to be harvested by semi-normadic pastoralist clans, who followed traditional rules around the harvest process, which would allow the continued co-existence with these trees. However, instability in recent Somali history, has increased levels of poverty, corruption and war, creating circumstances  in which unsustainable harvesting practices arise more readily and the continuity of traditional ecological knowledge is threatened (1).

Additionally, dryland areas in Kenya, Ethiopia and Somalia are experiencing increased overgrazing from livestock, leading to increased damage and subsequent deforestation in those areas. Overgrazing, harvest of firewood, deforestation, forest fires and climate change are currently the biggest threats to those ecosystems, advancing the process of desertification (5). 

In 2018, a gold rush emerged in parts of Somalia, leading to the uprooting of centuries-old trees in the search of gold. Some of the people digging had previously been part of semi-nomadic pastoralist communities, but because of ever-changing climate conditions, decided to give up their peripatetic lifestyles. Now, many live settled in the mountains, wishing they could return to their nomadic lives. The gold rush also brought more violence to the region, increasing instability, as competition over access to newly discovered resources intensified(6). 

Yet, some nearby communities still exist in close harmony with these trees, maintaining systems of stewardship in which knowledge of sustainable harvest practices is passed down through generations (6). Usually these people live in remote areas, and are not well connected to other villages or the outside world. As such, the resin is sold on to middlemen who hold a lot of power in terms of the price for the resin. All of which, gives little power and resource to wild harvesters themselves. Tappers and graders tend to see a fraction of the price on the market, with $10 /kg.

Approximately 30% of the price margin goes to the people tapping, the other approximately 70% to the urban merchants, selling on the resin (7). Additionally, it is estimated that 60% of the myrrh sold goes through illegal channels (7). The often opaque and complex nature of global supply chains, combined with the remote locations where myrrh trees grow and the resin harvested, makes transparency very difficult to achieve.

Myrrh resin, as well as other tree resins and gums, also represents an increasingly important source of income for these local communities, supporting livelihood diversification and risk management strategies (7). In response to these challenges, several companies and organisations that have committed themselves to more equitable practices and have obtained FairWild certification for their myrrh resins. 

FairWild is a certification body, which combines social and ecological factors and specialises in certifying wild-harvested products — a market with very difficult parameters, as every plant and every ecosystem brings its own requirements, which need to be taken into account when assessing the sustainability of its trade. One company that has gained the FairWild certification for their resins is IHSAN Resins Society Limited.

Made up of farmers, farm laborers unions and local traders of gums and resins harvested from the Horn of Africa region, this society brings together farmers and local traders, and reduces the negative impacts that middlemen often have. It is a supplier of a variety of types and grades of resins — including frankincense, myrrh, opoponax and gum arabic — and has been FairWild certified since 2023 (8,9).

Several other companies, such as Nagaad Resins and Gums, Kobac General Trading and other myrrh traders are also FairWild certified and supply these resins from these regions (7). As is often the case, when an opportunity is created for the people involved in the growing and harvesting of medicinal plants are able to organise and communicate with one another about their needs and challenges, they are better positioned to secure fairer compensation for their labour. This in turn creates more spaciousness to discuss, refine and implement sustainable harvest practices. 

Myrrh, as well as frankincense, grows in climates that are very challenging to life. Not just for the trees, but also for the people living alongside them, facing hot climates, droughts, and little fertile soil for permanent agriculture. Despite this, people and trees have lived alongside each other in these areas for thousands of years, and the tree resin, perhaps one of the most ancient things to be traded across continents, remains an important resource to humans all over the world. 

Now is a crucial time to pay attention to the trade of myrrh and the conditions that make it possible for us to use it whilst living so far away from the source of this resin. Currently, C. myrrha is not officially classified as globally endangered nor threatened (10). However, it is facing challenges in multiple, interconnected ways.

The harsh environments in which it grows are amongst the least able to buffer the impact of climate change and are already experiencing increased levels of drought. In regions where water is already so sparse, shifts in rainfall can determine whether ecosystems persist or not. These environmental pressures also contribute to broader socio-political instability, such as the change in land use. 

While the social sustainability of myrrh production remains uncertain on a larger scale, local community projects, particularly those working together with certification schemes such as FairWild, offer promise. These approaches can both sustain the ecological resource while also offering fairer pay and improved living conditions for those involved in the stewardship of the trees and the harvest of the resin. 

At a time of such global interconnectedness, supporting local communities who are maintaining sustainable relationships with these species is important now more than ever, not only for their livelihoods but for the continued availability of this incredibly valued natural resource. 

1. Small E. Frankincense and myrrh — imperilled divine symbols of religion’s duty to conserve biodiversity. Biodiversity. 2017;18(4):219-234. https://doi.org/10.1080/14888386.2017.1370390
2. Batiha GE, Wasef L, Teibo JO, et al. Commiphora myrrh: a phytochemical and pharmacological update. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol. 2023;396(3):405-420. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00210-022-02325-0
3. Blumenthal M, Goldberg A, Brinckmann J, eds. Herbal Medicine: Expanded Commission E Monographs. American Botanical Council; 2000.
4. Engels G, Brinckmann J. Myrrh Commiphora myrrha family: Burseraceae. HerbalGram. 2012;(93):1-4.
5. Hassan BA, Glover EK, Luukkanen O, et al. The role of Boswellia and Commiphora species in rural livelihood security and climate change adaptation in the Horn of Africa: case study of north-eastern Kenya. Int J Soc For. 2011;4:86-112.
6. Harper M. The Somali gold rush endangering frankincense and myrrh. BBC News. January 2023. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-64162379
7. Gizaw AW, Pretzsch J, Kassa H, Teketay D. Socio-ecological significance of collection and marketing of ancient forest commodities: the case of myrrh and opoponax in the dryland areas of southeastern Ethiopia. Paper presented at: Tropentag; September 17-19, 2014; Prague, Czech Republic.
8. FairWild Foundation. Myrrh. Accessed April 15, 2026. https://www.fairwild.org/ingredients/myrrh
9. Ihsan Resins Society. About. Accessed April 15, 2026. https://www.irsociety.ltd/about/
10. Royal Botanic Gardens Kew. Commiphora myrrha (T.Nees) Engl. Plants of the World Online. First published in A.L.P.P. de Candolle & A.C.P. de Candolle, Monogr. Phan. 4: 10 (1883). Accessed February 28, 2026. https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:127741-1

One of the most persistent challenges is the overharvesting of herbs from wild populations. Many species, such as goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis) and various orchids used in traditional medicine, have experienced dramatic population declines due to market pressure, while more common species, such as dandelion root (Taraxacum officinale) and raspberry leaf (Rubus idaeus), have faced recent availability constraints.

To mitigate risks related to supply insecurity, contaminants (pyrrolizidine alkaloids), and limited traceability, many operations in Albania, Poland, and Ukraine have begun supplementing wild-harvested material with sustainably cultivated stock, improving both environmental outcomes and stock availability.

The impact of climate change on herbal crops is ongoing. Fluctuating precipitation patterns, increasing drought frequency, heat stress, and extreme weather events have disrupted growing cycles and reduced yields. Habitat fragmentation has further undermined the ability of wild plant populations to adapt to these stresses. Research on cowslips (Primula elatior) has shown that fragmented habitats impair their evolutionary capacity to tolerate drought, thereby reducing resilience under warming climate conditions (2).

In response, herbal supply chains are increasingly diversifying sourcing regions and, where possible, selecting and breeding varieties better suited to local conditions. One example is the development of new basil (Ocimum basilicum) varieties, bred to maintain both yield and phytochemical richness under water-stress conditions (3).

Additional initiatives include increased investment in solar drying infrastructure and replacing fossil fuels with biomass for hot-air dryers. Herb drying has been shown to be one of the most carbon heavy operations in the supply chain and these measures are helping reduce carbon footprints while improving resilience to energy and climate-related disruptions.

The rural-to-urban migration in the herbal sector leads to the loss of traditional knowledge and reduced labour availability for both cultivation and wild harvesting. This trend places both supply continuity and sustainability at risk. Experienced harvesters who understand when, where, and how to collect plants sustainably are retiring or leaving for urban employment, while younger generations show declining engagement with these practices.

During engagements with rural communities in 2024 and 2025, several key drivers of migration were identified:

1. Income and job security: Unpredictable weather, fluctuating crop prices, and insecure sales channels make herb cultivation and wild collection high-risk and low-reward activities. Seasonal harvesting also leads to inconsistent income, often requiring collectors to supplement earnings with other work.
2. Image and self-respect: Wild herb collection is not always perceived as a successful or prestigious career path.
3. Access barriers: Knowledge of herb cultivation and collection is often transmitted generationally; those without family exposure face steep learning curves.
4. Work–life balance: Cultivation and wild harvesting rarely follow a standard 9-to-5 schedule. Younger generations tend to prioritise flexibility and personal time more than previous generations.
5. Policy and certification complexity: Permits, licensing, and certification requirements can be administratively burdensome, often favouring large, established operations over small entrants and individual harvesters.

Adequate Quality Control is critical in the herbal industry. Contamination with pesticides, heavy metals, pyrrolizidine alkaloids, tropane alkaloids, adulterants, or fillers remains common. Studies indicate that approximately 27% of commercial herbal products contain adulterants or are entirely substituted with incorrect species (4). While not always intentional, such issues may stem from insufficient plant identification knowledge or inadequate Quality Control within the supply chain.

The same study reported particularly high rates of adulteration in Brazil (68%), followed by Taiwan (32%), India (31%), the United States (29%), Malaysia (24%), Japan (23%), South Korea (23%), Thailand (20%), and China (19%) (4). Findings such as these emphasize the importance of robust Quality Control systems and accurate botanical identification.

While traditional macroscopic evaluation, complemented by chromatographic methods form the foundation of botanical identification, molecular techniques, including DNA barcoding, are available and becoming invaluable tools for ensuring authenticity throughout the supply chain.

The Sustainable Herbs Initiative (SHI) emerged as an important platform for coordinated action across the herbal sector. This coalition of producers, brands, scientists, and herbalists is developing best practices for wild harvesting, traceability, carbon-emissions tracking, and inclusive governance models that recognise nature as a stakeholder in supply-chain decision-making.

One of the most significant recent developments has been the establishment of the Scope 3 Herbal Foot printing Group, led by SHI. Through this pre-competitive collaboration, companies are working collectively to measure and reduce greenhouse-gas emissions across herbal supply chains, reflecting a notable shift in strategic thinking within the industry.

Economic sustainability is central to responsible herb sourcing. Certification schemes such as Fair for Life, FairWild, Fair Trade, and Organic require fair compensation, safe working conditions, and meaningful community engagement. These frameworks help ensure that communities benefit socially and economically from the plant resources they steward, moving beyond extractive models toward shared prosperity.

However, small-scale producers and processors often struggle to afford certification costs, limiting access to premium markets and reinforcing structural inequalities. In this context, group certification schemes continue to play a critical role in securing market access for smallholder organic growers. In 2025 there were over 1.1 million farmers registered under the Participatory Guarantee System (PGS) in India.

In 2024, FairWild implemented its Standard 3.0, expanding eligibility to a broader range of operators, from small-scale harvesters to global traders. While the number of FairWild-certified brands has remained relatively stable, adoption of the standard among operators and traders has increased substantially. This has amplified the standard’s impact and expanded the availability of FairWild-certified botanical ingredients (5).

The introduction of US import tariffs in 2025 had significant and multifaceted impacts on global MAP trade, affecting supply chains, pricing, industry profitability, and access to key botanical ingredients. To mitigate these effects, many US companies have sought alternative suppliers, raised shelf prices, or absorbed increased costs, often at the expense of reduced margins.

Trade and industry associations are actively lobbying for tariff exemptions for MAPs that are essential to the US herbal industry but cannot be commercially cultivated domestically. At present, only a limited number of botanical components are exempt from these tariffs.

For brands and operators in the herbal industry:

• Invest in the selection and breeding of MAP varieties suited to changing climatic conditions without compromising yield or active constituents.
• Diversify botanical sourcing geographically and supplement wild-harvested material with cultivated stock under organic or other sustainability certifications that support restorative ecology.
• Adopt tools and approaches to ensure species authenticity, safety and efficacy of herbal products. 
• Invest in community partnerships by working with local harvesters and cooperatives to secure fair wages and long-term resource stewardship.

For regulators and policymakers:

• Strengthen harvesting regulations by establishing science-based quotas, habitat protections, and effective enforcement mechanisms.
• Support access to certification by lowering barriers for small suppliers through funding and technical assistance.

For consumers:

• Choose certified products by seeking credible sustainability and Fair Trade certifications.
• Support transparent brands that disclose sourcing practices and demonstrate long-term commitments to ecological stewardship.

1. Herbal Medicinal Products Market Size & Share Analysis – Growth Trends and Forecast (2025 – 2030) Source: https://www.mordorintelligence.com/industry-reports/herbal-medicinal-products-market?utm_source=chatgpt.com 
2. Van Daele, F., Honnay O., Janssens S., De Korthttps Hanne. Habitat fragmentation affects climate adaptation in a forest herb. https://arxiv.org/abs/2303.15712v3
3. Rahimi, M., Mortazavi, M., Mianabadi, A. et al. Evaluation of basil (Ocimum basilicum) accessions under different drought conditions based on yield and physio-biochemical traits. BMC Plant Biol 23, 523 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12870-023-04554-8
4. Ichim MC. The DNA-Based Authentication of Commercial Herbal Products Reveals Their Globally Widespread Adulteration. Front Pharmacol. 2019 Oct 24; 10:1227. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2019.01227 
5. FairWild Impact report 2024: https://www.fairwild.org/our-impact 

Native to the coastal regions of Southern California and Baja California, Mexico, white sage thrives in the sun-drenched, rocky soils of coastal sage scrub habitats. Its perennial nature and aromatic leaves have made it a mainstay for Indigenous communities, who cherish it for its ceremonial, medicinal, and culinary uses. Despite its abundance in certain areas, white sage faces mounting threats that could jeopardise its long-term survival and the integrity of the ecosystems it supports. Let’s delve into the key conservation challenges confronting white sage today.

Habitat loss and environmental threats

White sage faces a double jeopardy: not only is it overharvested, but it’s also losing ground to urban development and environmental stressors. Nearly half of its natural range has been destroyed to make way for cities, roads, and agriculture. The remaining habitats are under siege from climate change, invasive species, and altered fire regimes.

Projections are grim. Combined threats could shrink suitable white sage habitat by up to 66% by the end of the century. This loss reverberates beyond the ecological sphere, disrupting the cultural practices of Indigenous peoples who rely on white sage for ceremonies and healing. The plant’s decline represents both an environmental crisis and an erosion of cultural heritage.

Pollination ecology and hybridisation

White sage is a linchpin in its native ecosystem, supporting a diverse community of pollinators. Bees, especially those in the genera Bombus (bumblebees) and Xylocopa (carpenter bees), are its primary pollinators, ensuring the reproduction and resilience of local populations. In coastal sage scrub communities, Salvia apiana often stands as a dominant species, anchoring biodiversity. The health of pollinator populations is crucial; declines in bees due to pesticides, habitat loss, and disease further complicate conservation efforts.

Environmental changes

Human-driven changes are reshaping white sage’s world. Increased fire frequency — sometimes a result of careless human activity — destroys established plants and disrupts regeneration cycles. Invasive species like Echium candicans outcompete native sage for space and resources, further hindering its growth and reproduction.

At the same time, the decline of pollinators, especially bees, is a growing concern. These creatures are essential for white sage’s reproduction, and their disappearance could spell disaster for the species. The interplay of these factors underscores the fragility of white sage’s native range and the urgent need for conservation action.

Cultural appropriation and misuse

Perhaps the most contentious aspect of white sage’s contemporary story is its widespread use in wellness and spiritual practices — often divorced from its deep Indigenous roots. The burning of white sage to “cleanse energy” or “purify spaces” has become a staple of New Age rituals, yoga studios, and online wellness influencers. Yet, this appropriation frequently ignores the plant’s sacred significance and the traditions of the communities that have stewarded it for centuries.

This disconnect between traditional use and commercial exploitation diminishes the spiritual value of white sage and fuels irresponsible consumption. When consumers are unaware of the plant’s origins and importance, they may unwittingly contribute to unsustainable harvesting and the erosion of cultural knowledge.

Commercialisation and overexploitation

The commercialisation of white sage has reached unprecedented levels. Today, it’s easy to find bundles of white sage for sale on e-commerce sites and in big box stores across the United States. However, the supply chain is fraught: there are only a handful of farms cultivating white sage for the market, and most products are still wild-harvested.

Poaching, or illegal harvesting, has plagued the plant for years. In California and Baja Mexico, authorities have confiscated hundreds of pounds of illegally collected Salvia apiana, sometimes during the plant’s most vulnerable blooming season. Poachers often take entire plants or strip large quantities from single locations, preventing regrowth and devastating local populations. Law enforcement rarely catches perpetrators, and wild populations have suffered steep declines.

Commercial exploitation and illicit trade

The meteoric rise in the popularity of Salvia apiana in spiritual and wellness circles has triggered a dramatic increase in commercial harvesting. Each year, tens of thousands of pounds of wild white sage are stripped from the hillsides of California and Mexico to supply markets in the United States and abroad. This large-scale removal destabilises native ecosystems and puts immense pressure on the species, which is not currently listed as endangered but is certainly at risk (1).

Recent efforts to shed light on the unregulated white sage trade have revealed troubling patterns. For example, arrests in the Etiwanda Preserve — a protected area between Los Angeles and Palm Springs — spurred investigations by organisations such as United Plant Savers and the California Native Plant Society. Their work, along with documentaries like Saging the World, highlights the ecological and cultural consequences of unchecked harvesting (1,2,3).

At the heart of the issue is a shadowy network sometimes referred to as the “white sage mafia”. These groups exploit vulnerable individuals, recruiting them to harvest wild white sage for profit. Ironically, although the herb is relatively easy to cultivate, most commercially available sage is wild harvested because cultivation costs are higher. To counter this, United Plant Savers urge consumers and sellers to demand proof of cultivation, thereby supporting sustainable practices and reducing pressure on wild populations (2). Or grow your own, Plant Savers sells white sage seed, it can be expensive because the seeds are so small and are hand harvested, but germination rates are high.

International trade and supply chain concerns

The reach of white sage extends far beyond North America. Online marketplaces offer hundreds of white sage products, some vendors requiring bulk orders of 100 bundles or more. Reports indicate that a single seller may move tens of thousands of pounds of Salvia apiana in a year.

This global trade raises thorny questions about sustainability and cultural respect. For Native American tribes, the smoke from white sage is spiritually potent — a medium for blessings and prayers. Its commercialisation by non-Indigenous groups not only threatens wild populations but also appropriates sacred traditions.

Western spiritual movements have driven international demand since the 1980s, with a recent study from the Netherlands showing a strong preference for white sage among smudge stick users. Many consumers are drawn by the plant’s association with Native American spiritualism, deepening the market’s reach (2).

Yet, there are glaring gaps in our understanding of the global supply chain. On major e-commerce platforms, several Chinese companies offer bulk white sage, but sourcing and buyer information remain opaque. No comprehensive tracking system exists for international sales, leaving researchers and advocates in the dark about the true scale of the trade. Essential oil derived from Salvia apiana is also a popular scent for candles and other products.

For Indigenous peoples such as the Cahuilla, Diegueno, Luiseno, Mahuna, Chumash, Tongva, and Serrano, white sage is an indispensable part of life. Its seeds are edible, its leaves used as a spice, and its medicinal properties harnessed to calm nerves, treat colds, and act as a diuretic. The spiritual dimension is paramount; for the Chumash, tending to the spirit is integral to healing the body, and white sage plays a key role in maintaining spiritual wellbeing.

Since the 1980s, white sage has been embraced by a variety of cultures and spiritual movements. Burning sage leaves for ceremonial fumigation has grown popular far beyond Indigenous communities, with New Age, Neopagan, and Wiccan groups driving demand for smudge sticks and related products.

Although Salvia apiana is not formally classified as endangered, its conservation status is precarious. Intense commercial demand and environmental pressures have led to misconceptions and unsustainable harvesting. Legal collection is strictly regulated, permitted only on private land with proper permissions or from certified sustainable sources. Unfortunately, lax enforcement and unclear regulations have allowed habitat degradation to continue.

Amid these challenges, hope springs from grassroots efforts and community-based conservation. Local environmental organisations, Indigenous groups, and conservationists are leading the charge, focusing on cultivation, habitat restoration, and education. Protected areas like the North Etiwanda Preserve provide a haven for native species and ceremonial access for Indigenous peoples, while home cultivation and community stewardship promote biodiversity.

To reduce pressure on wild populations, advocates encourage consumers to choose sustainably sourced or home-grown white sage. Educational campaigns — such as Saging the World — seek to inform the public about responsible sourcing and the importance of respecting Indigenous practices (3).

The central message is clear: plants are not mere resources, but relationships. By viewing Salvia apiana through this lens, we can support both ecological resilience and the preservation of traditional knowledge. United Plant Savers has submitted white sage for Red Listing status to bring more international attention. Plants in trade have very little protection, so it’s up to us to ask important questions and take a stand.

The success of ongoing initiatives depends on collective action, the integration of traditional ecological knowledge, and the amplification of Indigenous voices. By working together, stakeholders can ensure that Salvia apiana — and the cultural practices intertwined with it — survive and thrive for generations to come. White sage’s plight is a microcosm of broader tensions between commerce, culture, and conservation. As demand continues to rise, so too does the responsibility to safeguard its future.

Through informed choices, respect for tradition, and active stewardship, we can honor the legacy of white sage and help it flourish in the wild and in the hearts of those who cherish it. Whether you burn a smudge stick or simply admire its silvery leaves on a hillside, remember: the story of white sage is one of resilience, community, and the enduring power of nature and tradition.

1. California Native Plant Society. White Sage Protection. California Native Plant Society. Accessed February 13, 2026. https://www.cnps.org/conservation/white-sage 
2. Geertsma IP, Zandstra BE, Stefanki A, van Andel TR. Commercialized “smudge sticks” used as incense in the Netherlands: an inventory of plants and trends behind a New Age fashion. Plants. 2024;13(3003):1–15.
3. Saging the World [film]. Directed by David Bryant, Rose Ramirez, and Deborah Small; produced by Rose Ramirez, Deborah Small, and California Native Plant Society. 2022. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_V7NoB1UPU8 Accessed February 13, 2026.

At the heart of the library is the Duke Ethnobotanical Archives (DEA), located at the welcome centre (1). This archive distinguishes itself by featuring materials on flora from around the world, including Duke’s alphabetised ethnobotanical files. These resources offer a thorough overview of global ethnobotanical research and studies, enriching the library’s offerings. 

Jim Duke was a brilliant, dedicated, and humble botanist whose love of plants and people inspired thousands of scientists and herbal enthusiasts. He authored hundreds of articles and three dozen books, compiled botanical data for his “Nature’s Farmacy” database. He was a big supporter of United Plant Savers and loved coming to the sanctuary and teaching.  Born in Birmingham, Alabama, in 1929, Duke earned his undergraduate and doctoral degrees at the University of North Carolina, then pursued postgraduate work in St. Louis, where he developed his lifelong interest in neotropical ethnobotany.

Duke’s career included significant work at the Missouri Botanical Garden, the USDA, and Battelle Memorial Institute, focusing on crop diversification and medicinal plants. He led USDA’s Medicinal Plant Laboratory and Economic Botany Laboratory, supported cancer research, and later established the Green Farmacy Garden at his home in Maryland. Duke retired from USDA in 1995 but remained active, receiving accolades such as the ACEER Legacy Award and being profiled by The New York Times. We are honored to have his library and archives at our Welcome Center at the sanctuary.

The research library is further enhanced by several unique and significant collections. The John Staba collection provides early pharmacy textbooks, presenting historical perspectives on herbal medicine. Stephen Buhner’s collection invites philosophical reflection on plant wisdom, while our most significant donation has been David Winston’s extensive collection covers a wide range of eclectic medical traditions and modern herbal practices.

Cascade Anderson Gellar’s collection is the most recent donation and brings a focus on folk traditions and herbal knowledge from the Northwest and Central America, deepening the library’s diversity and scope. We have kept the library organised and searchable by the individuals who have created the collections, we see their stories just as important as the books themselves.

As the library started to grow, we had the opportunity to purchase the historic Brick House Apothecary, located in Pomeroy, about ten miles from the sanctuary. Pomeroy is a beautiful town that overlooks the mighty Ohio River. The Brick House has several rooms we can rent out to visitors or to host visiting scholars and artists. This is also where we have expanded the library collections.

The entire catalog, containing over 4,000 volumes, is searchable online through the United Plant Savers website. Members are encouraged to visit, explore, and immerse themselves in the rich information available, opening doors to new insights and traditions in the field of herbal medicine.

Expanding public access and the Duke Archives

United Plant Savers is dedicated to increasing public access to our sanctuary by providing lodging options and sharing the medicinal knowledge cherished by the community. The welcome centre has the largest collection of Jim Duke’s prolific herbal writings and Peggy Duke’s botanical drawings, along with their notes, slides, files, and herbarium. This central location preserves and showcases their extensive research, making it accessible to all.

Located at the centre, the Duke Library is curated in custom red oak bookshelves with locking glass doors, with additional materials stored in filing cabinets below. Plans are underway to catalog the slide collection, which features plants from the Amazon, Costa Rica, Appalachia, Maine, and other places. A small herbarium collection from Jim Duke and plants from the Sanctuary in Ohio is being curated as well. Looking ahead, we are planning a teaching garden and aim to announce ethnobotanical fellowship research opportunities. 

United Plant Savers was founded at the International Herb Symposium, which was also founded by Rosemary Gladstar and United Plant Savers is now the organiser. We have curated the classes taught at the International Herb Symposium over the years, which is now at the International Herb Symposium Learning Center.  It’s a wonderful resource to explore classes that can be purchased individually or in bundles.

International Herb Symposium and eclectic history

Last year, the International Herb Symposium took place in Cincinnati, Ohio, with a central focus on the history of the eclectics. Hosting the event in Cincinnati created a unique opportunity for collaboration with the Lloyd Library, an iconic institution known for its extensive medicinal book collections. This partnership highlighted the rich heritage of the eclectics and American herbalism, while also drawing attention to the often-overlooked aspects of conservation and social ethics from this influential period.

Library excursions and regional connections

The Lloyd Library and the United Plant Savers centre together offer a meaningful excursion into the heart of Appalachia, providing participants and visitors with direct access to the region’s deep-rooted traditions in medicinal plants and herbal practice.

Online resources and the magic of physical libraries

In addition to these physical centers, United Plant Savers actively supports resources like the World Herb Library, an online repository of scanned herbal books, and the Biodiversity Heritage Library, which provides free access to older herbal texts now in the public domain. While these online resources have made a wealth of information readily available, there remains something truly magical about being present in a library, physically holding a book that unexpectedly captures your interest.

Balancing online learning and hands-on experience

In our current era of online learning, it is important to maintain a balance between accessing digital knowledge and engaging directly with medicinal plants. Supporting gardens and centres that cultivate and preserve plant diversity is essential to sustaining the traditions and innovations of herbal medicine.

“If you have a garden and a library, you have everything you need.” ― Cicero

1. Duke Ethnobotanical Library. United Plant Savers. Published April 2, 2025. Accessed January 12, 2026. https://unitedplantsavers.org/dukearchives/

Saw palmetto (Serenoa repens) is a low-growing, shrubby palm native to the southeastern United States. The stem of saw palmetto is usually very short, and produces several stalks from which divided, fan-shaped leaves appear. These can span up to a meter across and may be composed of 18–30 segments. The leaf stems (petioles) have fine, sharp spines or teeth along the edges — giving the species its common name, saw palmetto. Clusters of white fragrant flowers, which grow on stalks give way to berries, which turn from green to orange to a purplish-black colour when ripe (1).

Saw palmetto grows as an undergrowth in forests, and on coastal sand shrubby areas. It’s an incredibly resilient plant, thriving on nutrient poor, acidic soils and being well adapted to fire disturbance. After fire, the plant grows rapidly, resprouting from root crowns and rhizomes. Periodic fires every five years seem to be beneficial to flowering and fruiting. However, being exposed to fire periodically, also helps to keep populations at bay, as without fire Serenoa repens soon completely dominates other plant species (2). Traditionally, fire was implemented by indigenous people to keep plant populations healthy but also in balance with other plant species (2).

Saw palmetto is native to the southeastern United States — Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina, which means, globally speaking, it has a fairly small natural habitat (1). In those areas, it can form unbroken plant populations that stretch for many miles (2). Seeds tend to have a very low germination rate, and the main way of reproduction seems to be mostly vegetatively via woody rhizomes lying on or just below the soil surface. Plants grow very slowly, but they can become very old, individual stems reaching 500 to 700 years of age, and some clonal patches are estimated to be around 5000 years old.

Saw palmetto is considered a keystone species — a species on which many other species in the ecosystem rely — as more than 100 bird species, 27 mammals, 25 amphibians, 61 reptiles, and countless insects use it as food and/or cover, including endangered species of bears and panthers (4). The flowers are an important source of pollen for insects, with over 300 different species of insects visiting the flowers (5).

By indigenous people, this plant was cherished as well and used in various ways. The berries were eaten as a food and used as medicine (6), the stalks were used to gain fibres for basketry, and the leaves used as thatch and for bedding material (2,6). In Florida, saw almetto is very common, covering vast areas of land, to the point that it used to be considered a pest by land developers and farmers, and pesticide use was encouraged to manage it (3).

Westerners started using and selling saw palmetto as medicine in the late 19th century, when it soon became popular. In the 1890s 250 tonnes of the berries were being used to make extracts (3). However, since herbal medicine lost popularity in the 19th and 20th centuries, trade with saw palmetto didn’t see another burst until the 1970s, when herbal medicine had a resurgence of interest.

Until the late 20th century, saw palmetto was mainly conceived as a pest species, to be eradicated with the use of machinery and herbicides to free the land for agricultural or land developmental uses (7). But with increasing interest in saw palmetto berries as a medicine, particularly from European countries, and increased research, providing evidence for its use, demand for the berry soon rocketed. Until then, harvest and sales of palmetto berries happened mostly under the radar. The harvest was mostly done by migrant farm workers who received a few cents per pound. But as the demand went up, so did the prices and harvesters could get as much as 3.00$ per pound. This led to land owners and the state of Florida to show more interest and soon harvesters needed the land owners permission to harvest the berries from plants growing on their land (8).

Landowners hired crew leaders, who in turn would employ harvest crews to do the actual harvest. Landowners would typically receive $0.44–0.46/kg, with $0.15-0.17/kg going to the pickers and $0.07/kg going to the crewleaders. For landowners this represents a lucrative business, potentially creating more yearly income than from cattle, which the land would normally be used for (7). In the following years, the demand remained high, although supply tends to fluctuate, as fruiting seems to follow a boom and bust pattern, some years bringing much higher yields than other years. And fruiting success is generally fairly low for saw palmetto.

Additionally, extreme weather events, especially large amounts of rain, can severely impact maturation and harvest rates (10). In 2010 worldwide sales of saw palmetto supplements were approximately US $700 million, with the United States accounting for US $200 million alone — showing the high demand for this crop.

Since the boom of saw palmetto, more and more voices have spoken out to regulate the saw palmetto trade, as nature conservationists highlight that the berry is a vital food source for wild animals. In 2018 the Endangered Plant Advisory Council of the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services added saw palmetto to Florida’s “commercially exploited plant list”. As a result of this, a “Native Plant Harvesting Permit” is now required on top of the land owner’s permit to be able to harvest saw palmetto fruits.

From July 2024, the illegal harvest or possession of saw palmetto berries is treated as a third degree felony, punishable by up to five years of prison. Since then, several instances of saw palmetto theft have been reported (11,12,13). One of these included approximately 768 kg of berries worth $3,309 (13). A question that remains open is how the increasingly abundant and restrictive regulations affect the already marginalised harvesters of saw palmetto.

Florida has one of the largest farming communities of the United States with over 100,000 farm workers (14). Two thirds are seasonal workers and one third migrants, all generally earning a marginal income. And the “contracting” system, by which a work force is contracted to work on farms via middle men (crew leaders) can make it very difficult to take action against abuse within the work force.

The Coalition of Immokalee Workers (CIW), a worker-based human rights organisation internationally recognised for its achievements in the fields of social responsibility, human trafficking, and gender-based violence at work has recorded several cases of gross abuse of human rights between 1997–2010, where workers were forced to work against their will, sometimes through threats, by retaining their passports or the use of physical violence (15). Other cases illustrate very demanding working conditions, 12 hour working days, six days a week, for as little as 20$ a week (15).

While no cases are specifically known regarding the harvesters of saw palmetto, as there is little transparency within the saw palmetto trade, it is impossible to positively exclude the likelihood of these conditions for harvesters. Saw palmetto harvest is hard work, partly due to the intense heat during the harvest months, but the plant itself makes harvest difficult. Thickets of saw palmetto stands can be too thick to penetrate, and the teeth on the stalks can rip clothing and cause wounds, and venomous snakes can hide between plants. Death of saw palmetto harvesters due to snake bites has been mentioned in the literature (16).

Overall Serenoa repens is considered as ‘apparently secure G4’. Populations in Mississippi and Florida are secure, while in South Carolina they are deemed ‘vulnerable’ and in Louisiana ‘critically imperiled’. Georgia and Alabama have not been assessed at this time (17).

The American Botanical Council raises concerns regarding its future sustainability. The greatest threats to saw palmetto today are habitat loss due to land change use — i.e. land being turned into agricultural land for crops, or converted to urban land. It is perhaps noteworthy that not all regulations seem to make sense in this regard. While berry harvest is seen as a threat to wildlife, land conversion to agricultural or urban land, doesn’t seem to be considered with the same vigor, even though arguably it presents a greater threat — though perhaps a better economical bargain. Climate change is a challenge for berry crops, as severe rainfall can cause fungal infections that affect the berries. It also represents long-term challenges as sea-level rises are predicted to affect the local coastal areas, one of the main habitats for saw palmetto (16).

However, other climate change effects are predicted to extend saw palmetto’s natural habitat inland, potentially increasing its habitat (18). This highlights the complexity of climate change, and how challenging it can be to accurately predict long-term impact. Some saw palmetto clone patches are said to be 8.000 years old, showing just how resistant they can be (19).

However, the land changes brought about due to human activity might yet prove more damaging — as with the Amazon rainforest, which has survived at least 50 million years of various climate changes, yet may fall due to the impact of fairly recent human activity on the land.

Perhaps saw palmetto shows a contrasting affair, where economical interest offers some level of protection of natural resources, but whether this is enough is unclear. A lack of transparency and sustainability incentives means that those involved in harvest are at risk of exploitation and further marginalisation.

With a plant that is in such high demand, there is great potential for development; either to expand an already extractive mindset, or to provide a fair system that benefits local wildlife, wild harvesters and everyone involved in the supply chain. There are projects out there that demonstrate that wild harvesting can be done in such a way, prioritising fairness, people and the planet, whilst retaining economic viability.

1. Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew. Serenoa repens – saw palmetto. Accessed November 24, 2025. https://www.kew.org/plants/saw-palmetto Kew Gardens
2. Anderson MK, Oakes T. Plant Guide for Saw Palmetto (Serenoa repens). USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service, National Plant Data Team; 2012: Davis, CA.
3. Foster S. Saw palmetto in commerce — Part 1: Revelations from European contact to 1990. Sustainable Herbs Initiative. 2019. Sustainable Herbs Initiative
4. Maehr DS, Layne JN. Florida’s all-purpose plant, the saw palmetto. The Palmetto. 1996;16(4):6-10, 15, 21. suncoast.fnpschapters.org
5. Deyrup M, Deyrup L. The Diversity of Insects Visiting Flowers of Saw Palmetto (Arecaceae). Florida Entomologist. 2012;95(3):711-730. https://doi.org/10.1653/024.095.0322
6. American Botanical Council. Saw palmetto berry. In: Expanded Commission E Monographs. Accessed November 25, 2025. https://www.herbalgram.org/resources/expanded-commission-e-monographs/saw-palmetto-berry/
7. Carrington ME, Mullahey JJ, Krewer G, Boland B, Affolter J. Saw palmetto (Serenoa repens): an emerging forest resource in the southeastern United States. South. J. Appl. For. 2000;24(3):129-134. ResearchGate
8. Foster S. Saw palmetto sustainability — change in 140 years of commerce and conservation: 1879-2019. Sustainable Herbs Initiative. 2019. Sustainable Herbs Initiative
9. Carrington ME, Mullahey JJ. Effects of burning season and frequency on saw palmetto (Serenoa repens) flowering and fruiting. For. Ecol. Manag. 2006;230:69-78. faculty.nelson.wisc.edu
10. Gafner S, Baggett S. Adulteration of saw palmetto (Serenoa repens). Version 3. Botanical Adulterants Prevention Bulletin. 2018.
11. Farrow H. What are saw palmetto berries, and why would someone steal 800 pounds of them? Tampa Bay Times. August 28, 2024. 
12. Gay N. Florida saw palmetto berry bust leads to 11 arrests and seizure of 6,000-pound bounty: MCSO. FOX 13 Tampa Bay. Published August 13, 2025. Accessed December 14, 2025. https://www.fox13news.com/news/florida-saw-palmetto-berry-bust-leads-11-arrests-seizure-6000-pound-bounty-mcso
13. Franklin O. Martin County detectives arrest 10 men on charges involving theft of palmetto berries. Treasure Coast. Published 2025. Accessed December 14, 2025. https://eu.tcpalm.com/story/news/crime/martin-county/2025/08/13/detectives-arrest-11-related-to-illegal-palmetto-berry-harvesting/85642986007/
14. Rural Neighborhoods. Florida’s farm workers. Accessed November 26, 2025. https://www.ruralneighborhoods.org/what-we-do/farm-workers/floridas-farm-workers/
15. Coalition of Immokalee Workers. Slavery in the Fields and the Food We Eat. Accessed November 26, 2025. https://ciw-online.org/wp-content/uploads/12SlaveryintheFields.pdf
16. Foster S. The historical interplay of plant biology, trade, and human interactions with saw palmetto. HerbalGram. 2021-22;123:36-67. GlobeNewswire
17. NatureServe Explorer. Serenoa repens – saw palmetto. Accessed November 26, 2025. https://explorer.natureserve.org/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.139448/Serenoa_repens
18. Butler CJ, Larson M. Climate change winners and losers: The effects of climate change on five palm species in the Southeastern United States. Ecol Evol. 2020;10(19):10408-10425. Published 2020 Sep 1. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.6697 
19. Ancient Saw Palmettos in the Heart of Florida – United Plant Savers. United Plant Savers. Published January 7, 2019. https://unitedplantsavers.org/ancient-saw-palmettos-in-the-heart-of-florida/ 

Ethnobotany is highly interdisciplinary and weaves together perspectives from botany, anthropology, ecology, medicine and history to understand plant and human interactions. It has a particular focus on traditional knowledge and uses of plants within specific cultures and regions. Through ethnobotany we learn how people use plants for a variety of uses — from shelter to food, ceremony, clothing, medicine, art and ritual.

Ethnobotany is also not just limited to understanding indigenous peoples knowledge, but how people from everywhere use and interact with plants (including in cities and amongst global diaspora).  For example, the paper Cross-cultural adaptation in urban ethnobotany: The Colombian folk pharmacopoeia in London investigates which plants the Colombian diaspora in London use, and how these uses have changed after migration (2). Ethnobotany also largely works with people from afro-descendant communities, traditional societies and local communities. 

Other fields of ethnobiology include ethnomycology (the study of people and fungi), ethnozoologists (people and animals) and ethnoecologists (people and their environment/ecosystem), amongst others.

The field of ethnobiology that focuses on medicines is called ethnopharmacology. 

“Ethnopharmacology is a multidisciplinary field of inquiry investigating the anthropological rationale and the pharmacological basis of the medicinal use of plants, animals, fungi, micro-organisms, and minerals by human cultures” (3).

Drawing on pharmacology, anthropology, biology, phytochemistry and pharmacognosy, ethnopharmacology researches all things surrounding herbal medicines. This spans from different medical systems and philosophies, to harvesting practices and preparation methods, ethnopharmacology archives and expands on traditional knowledge by researching it from different perspectives. 

In ethnopharmacology, ‘folk medicine’ is not limited to the kitchen or the premises of traditional preparation, but is also investigated in the lab, and plant specimens taken to the herbarium.

One could argue that herbalism is ethnobotany in action — the use of plants as medicine. Much of our herbal knowledge — particularly in the West — has come from an ethnobotanical exploration of our own native practices, and adoption and incorporation of those from afar. 

A Western example is echinacea (Echinacea spp.) — an immune boosting plant in Europe and was brought from America in 1952. Swiss herbalist Alfred Vogel spent several weeks with the Sioux people on the Pine Ridge reservation in South Dakota, where he met a medicine man called Ben Black Elk from the Lakota Ogala tribe. Black Elk shared knowledge on the traditional use of echinacea for coughs, wounds, infections and snakebites and generously gave Alfred Vogel seeds to bring back home. Now echinacea is one of the most popular herbs used in Europe. 

Ethnobotany also unveils the diverse ways that people from different cultures use the same species in herbalism. The same plants grow across different countries and regions, yet, how the people from these places use and prepare the plants often differ. This highlights alternative benefits of the phytochemistry of the plants, new leads for scientific research, and the diversity of approaches to work with these medicines. 

In Northern Europe, bay leaves (Laurus nobilis) are used for digestive disorders and wound healing. However, in Greece, bay leaves are used for metabolic health for example diabetes and cholesterol. In Cyprus, people put bay leaves in their cupboards to keep insects and cockroaches out, and interestingly phytochemical analysis of bay leaves show that the compounds in them have insect repellent activity (4). This is exemplary of how scientific insight can enrich traditional knowledge, here, supporting a means to reduce chemical use with pesticides. 

People from different parts of the world often also use the same plant for the same actions or conditions. It could be argued that the repetition of use of a plant across cultures strengthens the evidence that a plant is useful, and therefore warrants further investigation and scientific enquiry.

Another invaluable part of ethnobotany is traditional ecological knowledge (TEK). Ecologist Fikret Berkes defined TEK as “a cumulative and dynamic body of knowledge, practices, and beliefs that evolves through adaptive processes, which are shared across generations through cultural transmissions”. TEK is an accumulation of all of the observational knowledge gathered over years, on all species that reside within a community and most importantly, how the humans living there interact with them. TEK includes practices, skills and understandings of how to work with the environment in a way that is sustainable and facilitates an enduring and thriving species population.

TEK also includes growing, foraging and harvesting techniques, as well as adaptive mechanisms to deal with a changing environment; though, it must be noted that sometimes maladaptations do happen, and practices can in some cases be damaging. When describing TEK, herbalist Jonas Brab said the practices are “usually based on a holistic worldview, where humans are part of a living community and where everything has repercussions that have to be considered” (5).  

This knowledge is particularly crucial for the protection and longevity of herbal medicines now, as there has never before been so much interest in herbal medicines commercially. With people seeking alternative medicines and more natural ways of living, there has been an enormous increase in sales of supplements and medicinal plants and fungi these past few years. The global herbal medicine market was estimated at $70.57 billion in 2023 and is projected to reach $328.72 billion by 2030 (6). Many medicinal plants now endangered and facing extinction in the wild include popular herbs like rhodiola (Rhodiola rosea), cordyceps (Ophiocordyceps sinensis), chaga (Inonotus obliquus) and liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra). Read about species specific sustainability issues.  

Not only is this a major loss for all, but most importantly for the people who have stewarded this land and the herbs, and who depend on them for medicines. A well-known example of this is with the popularisation of the psychoactive brew ayahuasca, traditionally made from plants in the Amazon amongst a diverse array of traditional communities within the jungle. Now because of ‘spiritual tourism’, the vines have been exploited, and in many places it is very difficult or not possible for the local people to have access to the plants, which are so integral to their spiritual practices, ceremonies and rites of passage (6). The same thing happens with the medicinal herbs in popular supplements. 

Ethnobiology, ethnoecology and TEK offer us the opportunity to listen to and learn from people who know how to sustain and nurture thriving ecosystems. Collaboration and genuine partnership allow us to co-create systems with mutual benefits and equitable sharing where all species can thrive.  As stated in the Fungi Foundations Ethnomycology Ethical Guidelines 2025, “The knowledge underlying the resource management practices of the world’s Indigenous Peoples, Afro-descendant communities, traditional societies and local communities is directly tied to the maintenance of biological diversity” (8).

Whilst ethnobiology holds much value and gives hope for the world, it has a deeply problematic history. The indigenous peoples, local communities, farmers, and Afro-descendant groups who are commonly involved with ethnobiology projects have faced deep historical injustices, marginalisation and oppression. Ethnobiology has been used to exploit these communities many times, and with the founder of ethnobotany John William Harshberger in 1895 describing it as “the study of the plants used by primitive and aboriginal peoples”. The term “economic botany” has often been used in place of ethnobotany, indicating the highly capitalistic and often extractive ways these tools have been used. 

Now, there is a strong cultural shift and work being conducted to decolonise these practices. Any positives that these collaborations and the pursuit of ethnobiology may have, will only bloom if the value systems and practices are inherently different to the past. As stated in the Fundamentals of Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy, “The ‘Western’ use of such information has come under much scrutiny, and the national and indigenous rights of this knowledge has been acknowledged by most academic and industrial researchers” (7). Initiatives like the Convention of Biological Diversity (CBD) and The Nagoya Protocol have been created to prevent repetition of the past and ensure equitable benefit sharing. 

The Fungi Foundation has created Ethnomycology Ethical Guidelines, where they have outlined critical principles for the future of ethnobiology. They stated that “Ethnomycology thrives when it is carried out in dialogue with communities, under principles of reciprocity, mutual respect, and co-production of knowledge (8).”

The principles in the guidelines include: 

• Principle of self-determination, prior rights and responsibilities 
• Principle of respect to Pachamama (nature or mother earth) and her rights 
• Principle of historical justice and respect for Indigenous Peoples and local communities 
• Principle of reciprocity, mutual Benefit and equitable sharing
• Principle of conservation of flora, fauna and fungi 
• Principle of respect to the elders and knowledge keepers
• Principle of acknowledgement and due credit 
• Principle of educated prior informed consent 
• Principle of support for social and indigenous projects 

Globally there is a deep shift in our collective relationship to nature, and this is in large part from listening to the stewards of the land, as well as deep disenfranchisement with the current system. In 2008 the Constitution of Ecuador. recognised the rights of Nature or Pachamama as a legal entity with the right to exist and be protected, reflecting indigenous and ecological principles embedded in the national legal framework.

“Nature or Pachamama, where life is reproduced and takes place, has the right to integral respect for its existence and the maintenance and regeneration of its vital cycles, structure, functions, and evolutionary processes. Every person, community, people, or nationality may demand the public authority to fulfill the rights of nature. To apply and interpret these rights, the principles established in the Constitution shall be observed, as appropriate. The State will incentivize natural and legal persons, as well as collectives, to protect nature and promote respect for all the elements that form an ecosystem” (10).

Whilst herbalism and ethnopharmacology are very important for the evolution of our healthcare systems, there is no doubt that ethnobiology can offer support for a lot more than just medicine. In fact, many would argue that it is remiss not to include indigenous-led value systems at the centre of our new way of being. Respect, reciprocity and harmony with nature are fundamental if we are to create an antidote to the troubles we face — thankfully, we have many people and species we can learn from. 

1. Wcmc. Championing Indigenous Peoples’ stewardship of biodiversity – UNEP-WCMC. UNEP-WCMC. https://www.unep-wcmc.org/en/news/championing-indigenous-peoples-stewardship-of-biodiversity
2. Ceuterick M, Vandebroek I, Torry B, Pieroni A. Cross-cultural adaptation in urban ethnobotany: The Colombian folk pharmacopoeia in London. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2008;120(3). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2008.09.004 
3. Leonti M, Casu L. Traditional medicines and globalization: current and future perspectives in ethnopharmacology. Frontiers in Pharmacology. 2013;4. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2013.00092 
4. Jemâa JMB, Tersim N, Toudert KT, Khouja ML. Insecticidal activities of essential oils from leaves of Laurus nobilis L. from Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco, and comparative chemical composition. Journal of Stored Products Research. 48:97-104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jspr.2011.10.003 
5. Braab J. The relevance of traditional ecological knowledge for modern herbal medicine | History | Herbal Reality. Herbal Reality. https://www.herbalreality.com/herbalism/history/relevance-of-traditional-ecological-knowledge-for-modern-herbal-medicine/ Published August 28, 2024.
6. Herbal Medicine Market Size, Share & Growth Report, 2030. https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/herbal-medicine-market-report 
7. Heinrich M, Barnes J, Gibbons S, Williamson E. Fundamentals of Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy. 2nd ed. Elsevier; 2012. http://cms.herbalgram.org/heg/volume9/files/Fundamentals_FM.pdf 
8. Ethnomycology Ethical Guidelines | Fungi Foundation. https://www.ffungi.org/campaign/ethnomycology-ethical-guidelines 
9. Oregon State University, College of Forestry. What is TEK? | Traditional Ecological Knowledge Lab. Published 2022. https://tek.forestry.oregonstate.edu/what-tek 
10. Ecuador: 2008 Constitution in English. https://pdba.georgetown.edu/Constitutions/Ecuador/english08.html

• Ethnomycology Ethical Guidelines- Fungi Foundation 2025
• EthicalGuidelines_English_2025.pdf 
• Ethnopharmacologic Search for Psychoactive Drugs- ESPD55- McKenna Academy
• Championing Indigenous Peoples’ stewardship of biodiversity – UNEP-WCMC

When seeking a replacement solution, consider herbs with:

• A similar action profile
• A related phytochemical profile
• Comparable taste, qualities and energetics
• Corresponding traditional uses
• Local origins
• More sustainable plant parts used

Considerations when substituting different plant parts of endangered herbs

It is always worth reflecting on the impact of harvesting different plant parts:

• Barks: Removal of barks can kill trees. Taking many years to regenerate, they should be either coppiced or removed in a rotation.
• Resins: Tapping the resin of plants can drain nutritive reserves and weaken defences.
• Roots: Digging roots can remove the whole plant, reducing the potential for future growth and damaging population densities.
• Flowers: Prevents the formation of seeds and furthering of genetic diversity.
• Seeds: Harvesting can prevent the spread of genetic diversity and reduce local populations.
• Fruits: Harvesting reduces the potential for spreading the seed.

Substitutes rarely produce identical effects; sometimes it may just be one aspect of a plant’s therapeutics that can be replicated by another; at other times two herbs may be needed to meet the same qualities as the original choice.

Goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis) is a herb that finding a replacement for is advisable because

• its wild populations are threatened and it is CITES listed 
• it has a long growing cycle making availability limited 
• due to ‘a’ and ‘b’, it is very expensive

Goldenseal is a herb native to North America, that has a long history of use by indigenous peoples and remains a highly valued herb in Western herbalism today, owing to the following qualities:

Goldenseal actions

• Anti-inflammatory
• Antimicrobial
• Bitter
• Cholagogue and choleretic
• Emmenagogue
• Hepatic
• Stomachic
• Vulnerary

Body systems support

Goldenseal supports different body systems, including

• Digestion
• Skin
• Reproductive system

Goldenseal energetics

• Bitter
• Astringent
• Cooling
• Toning

Goldenseal phytochemistry

• Isoquinoline alkaloids (2.5–6%) — hydrastine (minimum 2%)
• Berberine (minimum 2.5%)
• Canadine
• Berberastine
• Chlorogenic acid
• Volatile oil
• Resin
• Lipids
• Sterol and flavonoids (1)

Goldenseal substitution options 

Any bitter herb, such as andrographis or artichoke leaf, may be initially considered as a replacement, which would often suffice on its own due to the inherent cooling, drying and broad-spectrum antimicrobial effects of bitters in general. Bitter herbs containing berberine, such as barberry (Berberis vulgaris) or Oregon grape root (Berberis aquifolium), are all the better — though, of course, as roots (rootbarks, no less) these also face sustainability issues.

Other berberine-containing species, such as huang lian (Coptis chinensis) and daruharidra (Berberis aristata) also face sustainability threats in China and the Himalayas and are not recommended replacements. The efficacy of berberine in promoting weight loss and improving glucose metabolism has incited interest in the herb as a natural alternative to GLP-1 receptor agonists, such as Ozempic and Wegovy, despite producing a less significant effect, which is only leading to higher demand for berberine (2,3). And whilst berberine can be made synthetically, its a complex process rendering it costly and with safety risks (4).

To ensure the mucous membrane toning effects of goldenseal, combine the most appropriate bitter herb with an astringent herb, such as meadowsweet (Filipendula ulmaria) for the digestive system, calendula (Calendula off.) for the skin, and yarrow (Achillea millefolium) for the reproductive system — or any companion herbs with an affinity for the affected system. If it’s a specific digestive antimicrobial then garlic (Allium sativum) would be especially appropriate, if more astringency is required, consider combining with triphala, or if the issue is dermatological, alteratives are particularly useful.

Some herbs are much easier to substitute than others. Just as goldenseal is relatively easy to replace, so are slippery elm (Ulmus spp.) and gentian (Gentiana lutea); many herbs share their demulcent, nutritive or bitter digestive effects. However, herbs such as boswellia (Boswellia serrata), cordyceps (Ophiocordyceps sinensis), saw palmetto (Serenoa repens) or rhodiola (Rhodiola rosea) are more difficult to replicate as their actions and compounds are so specific.

Near equivalence can be achieved, but it will always be a compromise. Fortunately, this does not have to negatively impact clinical outcomes, as there are many approaches to creating a therapeutic strategy and personalised treatment that can initiate the healing response.

For a quick look guide through the Herbal Reality library of monographs, use the ‘herbal actions’ filter to view all of the herbs with a shared function — anti-inflammatory, analgesic, circulatory stimulant, or uterine tonic, for example.

Below are some suggested substitutions for replicating some aspects of our most challenged wild herbs. The following herbs are critically endangered.

Here are also some suggested replacements for other endangered herbs whose populations are currently under threat.

Sadly, many of the potential substitutes are also threatened, so it is of utmost importance to know the source, ensuring sustainable cultivation or wild-harvesting that carries a third party certification, establishing that good practice has taken place.

Other resources to explore include:

• United Plant Savers have developed some useful lists and tools for assessing Sustainable status of herbs that is worth a look.
• Access the IUCN Red List
• Access the CITES list

Before choosing which herbs to use and purchase, important questions to ask are:

• Where is this species / herb / product grown?
• Is there any environmental certification — e.g. Organic?
• Is there any social certification — e.g. Fairtrade?
• Is the herb from the wild? If so, is it certified — e.g. by FairWild?
• Is there a mention of quality standards? If not, why not?!

Of course, some of these recommendations are just suggestions, and herbalists must use their own expertise and specific clinical needs in selecting replacements for endangered herbs. This is a work-in-progress so do please share any of your insights or recommendations further to these listed above.

1. Fisher C. Materia Medica of Western Herbs. London: Aeon Books; 2018.
2. Ilyas Z, Perna S, Al-Thawadi S, et al. The effect of Berberine on weight loss in order to prevent obesity: A systematic review. Biomed Pharmacother. 2020;127:110137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2020.110137 
3. Araj-Khodaei M, Ayati MH, Azizi Zeinalhajlou A, et al. Berberine-induced glucagon-like peptide-1 and its mechanism for controlling type 2 diabetes mellitus: a comprehensive pathway review. Arch Physiol Biochem. 2024;130(6):678-685. https://doi.org/10.1080/13813455.2023.2258559 
4. Meher AK, Zarouri A, & Kumar M. Rethinking Synthetic Berberine in Nutraceuticals: Nitrosamine Risks, Regulatory Oversight, and Safer Alternatives. Preprints. 2025. https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202508.1171.v1 

The pink or purple flowered pau d’arco (H. impetiginosus) is typically used in the European and US herbal products markets. Though the most common species in trade, different Handroanthus species are found in ethnomedicine, like the yellow flowered pau d’arco (H. serratifolius) native to South and Central America, are considered to be similar biochemically, each producing lapachol, and are likely to be similarly efficacious (2).

The inner bark of pau d’arco is the part used as medicine and is believed to be antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, and anti-tumoral. Pau d’arco has been used by several groups of indigenous peoples in South America for a variety of conditions including stomach aches, fevers, colds and flu (the leaves), leishmaniasis, dysentery, and (with other species) diabetes. Others report use for “various maladies, especially cancer,” as an astringent, and for liver cirrhosis (3).

The inner bark of yellow pau d’arco, much like other species of the Handroanthus genus, is a natural source for lapachol, a compound that has been studied for anti-inflammatory, anticancer,antiparasitic and immune-modulating activities (4).

Pau d’arco trees, generally referred to as “ipê” in trade, produce very hard, heavy, durable wood that is highly valued in the market. It is sold locally for constructing houses, bridges, flooring, decking and handicrafts. Internationally it is primarily used for decking (5). The inner bark used for medicinal products on the international market Is a by-product of the logging industry.

Once the trees are logged, they are floated by river to urban areas for further processing. Because the wood is so heavy, buoys are used to keep it from sinking (6).

Brazil is the highest exporter of ipê, which are some of the most expensive species used in logging on the market in Brazil. The timber is referred to as the ‘new big leaf mahogany’ (Swietenia macrophylla), which was listed on CITES because of declines from overharvesting.

This has increased the price and demand for ipê and led to its listing in CITES Appendix 2 as well. The US and European countries are the main importers. There are no plantations of ipê and so all of this wood comes from natural forests. Over harvesting of the trees and deforestation from demand for agricultural land are the major threats. Habitat loss from fires, development, and conversion to pastures for livestock also threaten the species (7).

Over 525 million kg (or 469,613 m³) of ipê timber products were exported from Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Peru between 2017 and 2021. Most ipê is exported from Brazil, which accounted for 96% of the trade (based on volume).

The low natural density and the low growth rate of H. serratifolius (Ipê Amarelo), as well as H. impetiginosus (Ipê Rosa), typical of most of the other species within the three CITES-listed genera (Handroanthus, Roseodendron and Tabebuia), combined with high demand for international trade, habitat loss and degradation, has resulted in populations being negatively impacted. In the forests of northeastern Brazil, H. impetiginosus and H. serratifolius have shown drastic population declines, with no evidence of long-term population recovery.

H. serratifolius is categorised as globally Endangered in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species on the basis that it is threatened by international trade and is predicted to experience a population decline of at least 50% over the next 100 years (7). H. impetiginosus is assessed as Near Threatened, noting that its populations have declined considerably as a result of unsustainable exploitation for the international timber trade, with population declines of at least 25% expected over the next 100 year (7,8).

Unsustainable logging of the trees has led to significant declines in the population of the trees. The species also has a difficult time recovering from logging. In addition, the IUCN/Traffic have found evidence of illegal harvest and trade of the species as well as potential fraud in logging permits in Brazil (9). They also found that logging companies overestimated the sustainability of harvesting practices (10).

Since 1997, H. impetiginosa has been considered Endangered, while H. Incana and H. serratifolia are considered Vulnerable. In 2015, a Working Group in which PEBANI participated, proposed a new Official List of Categorization of Threatened Species. In 2016, through Ministerial Resolution, this list was put up for consideration. All species of the genus Handroanthus maintained their categorization as Endangered or Vulnerable (11). The species has since elevated to international protection and monitoring of export trade as per the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES).

The three genera Handroanthus, Roseodendron and Tabebuia were added to in CITES Appendix II at the Nineteenth meeting of the Conference for CITES of the Parties Panama City, November 2022. Entry into effect however was delayed by 24 months, i.e. until 25 November 2024. CITES Appendix II “lists species that are not necessarily now threatened with extinction but that may become so unless trade is closely controlled.”

It also includes so-called “look-alike species”, i.e. species whose specimens in trade look like those of species listed for conservation reasons (see Article II, paragraph 2 of the Convention)(12). International trade in specimens of Appendix-II species may be authorized by the granting of an export permit or re-export certificate. No import permit is necessary for these species under CITES (although a permit is needed in some countries that have taken stricter measures than CITES requires).

Permits or certificates should only be granted if the relevant authorities are satisfied that certain conditions are met, above all that trade will not be detrimental to the survival of the species in the wild. (See Article IV of the Convention)” The CITES listings came with Annotation #17 which limits the scope to logs, sawn wood, veneer sheets, plywood and transformed wood. This means that the inner bark used in traditional herbal medicine is excluded from CITES controls (13).

However, the inner bark is obtained as a by-product from felling entire trees for the logs, which still links this medicinal plant part to the overall controls and monitoring. Because the entire Handroanthus genus is listed in CITES Appendix II, it is supposed to go through a series of controls when transporting to the city. Because of potential fraud in logging permits, this is not a reliable method of ensuring that the trees have been harvested according to CITES guidelines. 

CITES and the Peruvian Service of National Forest and Fauna (SERFOR) do not consider pau d’arco inner bark as commercially restricted. SERFOR requires a forest management plan for this product, which must be approved by them, along with field and warehouse inspections (11).

Historically, the pau d’arco of commerce originated from the inner bark of H. impetiginosus trees native to Central and South America primarily obtained as a by-product of the logging industry in Brazil.

Though export trade of logs and wood from the trees are regulated by CITES, because of concerns over permitting fraud, buyers must ensure that they are purchasing from companies that know the source and are abiding by CITES regulations, such as a forest management plan and controlled harvesting. Other concerns are that the outer bark is mixed with the inner bark, which is the part of the plant that has the necessary constituents.

Companies typically purchase pau d’arco through a broker and so it can be difficult to get much information about harvesting practices.

I was able to get some information through a US based company who contacted their supplier who in turn answered my questions via email. They explained that they work with a network of trusted suppliers across Brazil, primarily in the regions in North and Northeast Brazil.

They explained that the Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renováveis (IBAMA), the environmental agency overseeing the harvesting process, plays a crucial role in preserving both the local forests and communities. Through sustainable harvesting practices monitored by IBAMA, this supplier wrote, communities can continue to earn income and sustain their way of life.

Responsible sourcing

In the initial report that recommended inclusion of all Handroanthus species in CITES Appendix II, the authors didn’t find evidence that the trade for herbal remedies impacts wild populations. Logging and habitat conversion remain the main drivers. But ethical sourcing of pau d’arco can create a market for sustainably logging the ipê trees by ensuring that they are harvested only when a forest management plan is intact that accounts for harvesting levels and replanting practices. The company must also demonstrate that sourcing the material adheres to the guidelines in their forest management plan. 

US based companies with whom I spoke who currently source their products from Brazil expressed their concern over the lack of visibility into the market for pau d’arco and an interest in finding traceable supplies. 

Pebani, a Peruvian company, is currently working toward FairWild certification for yellow pau d’arco and offers an alternative source for this product (14). Pebani was started in 1996 to improve the livelihoods of rural communities in the Peruvian Amazon and Andes through the sustainable sourcing of medicinal plants.

Cesar Barriga, the founder, a forest engineer, believes that the best-preserved forests are in the hands of indigenous people. Pebani is working to show indigenous communities that there is a market for products that are sustainably harvested and to provide these communities with the tools needed to source them.

As in Brazil, the main threats that facing pau d’arco in Peru are illegal logging, illegal mining, and subsistence farming. There is growing migration from the Andes to the Amazon because it is easier to work with crops in the Amazon.

According to Paulo Barriga, Cesar’s son and Chief of Operations at Pebani, 90% of the deforestation in Peru is from burning to clear the forest for small farms, from 5–30 hectares. There is a value in providing ways of making a living through harvesting medicinal plants that require the forest to remain intact.

Pebani finds supplies of pau d’arco first by identifying local communities that are both well established and that have legal tenure to the area. This is difficult in Peru because many communities don’t have ownership rights to the area where they live. And so, as a second step, Pebani works with the community to help them get the ownership titles needed.

They then do a preliminary survey of the forest to see how many pau d’arco trees are in the region. They extrapolate from this number to the whole area. That then determines whether Pebani believe it is worth the investment of doing an in-depth forest management plan which will determine how much they can harvest from a particular area. The forest management plan involves walking the entire area and putting a tag and GPS marker on every tree.

Pebani presents this plan to the government to get the permits needed to begin working in the area. They also need to submit annual operating plans documenting their harvest. There is quite a bit of bureaucracy to get permits and other requirements from the government. This is very important, Paulo explained, because it helps the government control the process.

Once Pebani receives an order, they identify those in the community who are willing to do the work. It’s difficult to find people because the work is hard. Once the trees are cut, the harvesters cut out the outer bark to harvest the inner bark.

It is dried in solar driers in the field and then sent to Lima for further processing. Rather than selling the timber in the market, the harvesters are able to keep the wood to use for local construction. As part of the management plan, Pebani replants three plants for every one cut.

Pebani pays the harvesters by the kilo for the dried product. They work with collectors as long as there is an order. 

Much of Pebani’s work is in the community with training. Because the trees take 20 years to grow, Pebani is also working in the communities to help them grow other crops like cacao, that can be grown in an agroforestry setting. Pebani staff are working with community members to develop different drying processes to bring more value to the community. Pebani invests in the communities in other ways as well, by providing water filters because the water quality is poor and a boat so that villagers can travel more easily. 

Some of the main challenges Pebani faces are the lack of ownership titles, the bureaucracy, and potential adulteration.

Another ongoing challenge for Pebani is the lack of demand. This means that they cannot provide a steady income to the harvesters, who then turn to other work, like clearing the forest for farming and livestock. Pebani pays a good price yet, Paulo explained, if they can only sell 100 kilos a year, they are still not able to provide a sustainable livelihood for the collectors. And so, paying fair prices is only part of the picture. There also needs to be a steady demand.

From Pebani’s perspective, it is good for companies to buy CITES products. Paulo said, “Some people believe that if something is listed in CITES they shouldn’t touch it. But even if you don’t touch it, people will still illegally harvest it.

And wild harvesters who might sustainably harvest the tree will simply shift to another source of income like growing corn. It also means that when bigger companies are willing to source the species sustainably under CITES, they will be required to implement a plan to replant the trees and invest in the overall preservation of the area.”

To prove his point, Paulo mentioned an article by someone who bought a huge area of land in the Amazon, yet this person said that buying land wasn’t the best way to protect it because he didn’t necessarily know what was happening on that land. But if you are sourcing something sustainably from the area, you have to go there, you have to know what is happening on the ground. You need to work with the local communities and the government to make sure following the regulations.

In 2022 Pebani began the process of becoming FairWild certified. They decided on the FairWild certification after speaking with Josef Brinckmann from Traditional Medicinals.

So far, in working toward the certification, a risk analysis for pau d’arco and three other medicinal plants from the region were carried out, hired trainers to help them prepare the necessary documents and are provide training for the collectors. As soon as they complete the trainings for the communities, they will schedule the FairWild audit and begin being able to provide FairWild certified products (15,16).

I once asked Paulo what would a partnership based in mutuality and trust emphasize with a brand? He explained that Pebani is looking for collaboration with both brands and buyers.

They hope to find buyers who are open to sharing the process around what they do around quality control, etc. to help Pebani better understand how they can add value to their process. In other words, Pebani is looking for buyers who work with them the way that Pebani is working in the communities from whom they source.

1. Bussmann R. Assessment of equivalence of Tabebuia serratifolia (Vahl) Nichols and Tabebuia impetiginosa (Mart. Ex DC.) Standl. William Brown Center, Missouri Botanic Garden; 2012. 
2. Gentry A. A synopsis of Bignoniaceae ethnobotany and economic botany. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden. 1992;79(1):53-64.
3. Rodrigues E. Plants and animals utilized as medicines in the Jaú National Park (JNP), Brazilian Amazon. Phytotherapy Research. 2006;20:378-391.
4. Jiménez-González FJ, Veloza LA, Sepúlveda-Arias JC. Anti-infectious activity in plants of the genus Tabebuia.
5. IUCN/TRAFFIC. Inclusion of trumpet trees Handroanthus spp., Tabebuia spp., and Roseodendron spp. in Appendix II with annotation #6. IUCN/TRAFFIC Analyses of Proposals to CoP18. 2019. 
6. Barriga P. Personal communication. March 18, 2024. 
7. Hills R. Handroanthus serratifolius. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2021. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T61985509A145677076.en. 
8. Hills R. Handroanthus impetiginosus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2021. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T144297143A173394208.en
9. Brancalion PHS, de Almeida DRA, Vidal E, Molin PG, Sontag VE, Souza SEXF, Schulze MD. Fake legal logging in the Brazilian Amazon. Science Advances. 2018;4(8). 
10. IUCN/TRAFFIC. Inclusion of trumpet trees Handroanthus spp., Tabebuia spp., and Roseodendron spp. in Appendix II with annotation #6. IUCN/TRAFFIC Analyses of Proposals to CoP18. 2019. 
11. Barriga C, Barriga P. Email communication. April 12, 2024. 
12. CITES. Appendices. [Accessed May 3, 2024]. Available from: https://cites.org/eng/app/appendices.php
13. CITES. Index. [Accessed May 3, 2024]. Available from: https://cites.org/eng/app/index.php
14. Pebani website. [Accessed May 3, 2024]. Available from: https://www.pebani.com.pe/
15. FairWild website. [Accessed May 3, 2024]. Available from: https://www.fairwild.org/
16. Schippmann U. Risk classification of species proposed for FairWild certification. Summary Data Sheet: Pebani, RA20200208 by IUCN Medicinal Plants Specialist Group. March 18, 2022.