• 1200 ml 45% strength alcohol (vodka is most commonly used)
• 1 kg dried herb (divided into three equal batches of 333 g each)

• 2–3 litre glass kilner jar 
• Muslin cloth 
• Funnel 
• Amber glass storage bottles

1. Place the 333 g of dried herb material in the jar 
2. Pour 1200 ml over the herb 
3. Ensure the herb is fully submerged 
4. Seal and label the jar 
5. Leave to macerate for between 3–4 weeks 
6. Stir or shake the jar regularly 
7. After four weeks, strain the maceration through muslin into a bowl
8. Squeeze the muslin to extract as much liquid as possible 
9. Measure out the second batch of 333 g herb material 
10. Pour the retained alcohol extraction from the first tincture over the dried herb
11. Macerate for another 3–4 weeks 
12. Repeat the previous steps once more for the third batch. 

Once the tincture has been pressed, bottle into glass (preferably amber) jars and keep out of direct sunlight in a cool place. As the alcohol is at 45%, this will act as a preservative, however it is always recommended to check the tincture for signs of mould before consuming. 

This percentage alcohol will extract both water soluble and alcohol soluble compounds, offering a broad-spectrum tincture. Some of the compounds extracted include: 

• Tannins 
• Polysaccharides 
• Mucilage 
• Minerals 
• Phenolic acids 
• Flavonoids
• Glycosdies 
• Alkaloids 
• Bitters 
• Coumarins 
• Saponins 

If, as a home herbalist, you only have access to commercial alcohol, the easiest option is to use 40% vodka or brandy. Vodka is a popular choice as it has a neutral flavour and is widely available.

Fresh plant material contains a higher water content than dried material, and so will reduce the overall percentage of the final extraction. In order to extract the same compounds from the plant, an alcohol percentage of 60–80% is recommended. If this is not accessible, drying the plant before tincturing will yield the same results. 

Fresh plants not only contain more water, but natural sugars and microorganisms on the plant’s surface. This can create a more favourable environment for bacterial growth unless the alcohol percentage is adjusted. If using standard 40% vodka, the final tincture may drop to below 30% if using plant material. An extraction lower than 30% risks bacterial growth, whilst anything 40% and above is suitable for long term storage (1,2).

1. Easley T, Horne SH. The Modern Herbal Dispensatory: A Medicine-Making Guide. North Atlantic Books; 2016.
2. Ganora L. Herbal Constituents : Foundations of Phytochemistry : A Holistic Approach for Students and Practitioners of Botanical Medicine. Herbalchem Press; 2021.

Constituents are often described as water-soluble, alcohol-soluble, or oil-soluble. But solubility behaves more like a continuum. A constituent may be somewhere on the spectrum of sparingly to highly soluble in any given solvent. Rather than asking “is this constituent water-soluble?” the question becomes, “from this herbal matrix, how soluble is this constituent in water, at this temperature, and using this extraction method?”

This is why changing the solvent and extraction method can change the focus and function of a herbal medicine. A standard infusion emphasises constituents that dissolve readily in hot water. Are these the constituents (and associated actions) that we desire in a particular medicine? A tincture made with a given menstruum extracts a different spectrum of constituents from the same herb. Which constituents will we focus on when we adjust the ethanol percentage of the menstruum? An infused oil of that herb will capture yet a different spectrum of constituents, therefore featuring different actions and energetics than the infusion or tincture.

The main influence on solubility is polarity — a property arising from a molecule’s electron distribution. If this distribution is unbalanced (i.e., there is internal charge separation) we have a polar compound. If the distribution is perfectly balanced, we have a nonpolar molecule. And, as with solubility, polarity is a spectrum. Any phytochemical or solvent falls somewhere along the continuum.

The key to solubility is matching the polarity of the solvent to the polarity of the constituents we desire to extract. The old aphorism “like extracts like” applies: higher-polarity solvents (like water) focus on higher-polarity constituents, while lower-polarity solvents (like fixed oils) favour lower-polarity constituents.

Relative polarity of solvents

If you think of water as being 100% polar, then glycerin would be about 81% as polar as water. Pure ethanol would be about 65% as polar as water. These solvents are close enough that they will intermix with each other. Each of these solvents targets a particular group of constituents but there is overlap in what they will extract. Fixed oils and carbon dioxide (CO₂) extract lower-polarity constituents don’t easily mix with water, vinegar, glycerol or ethanol.

Solvent / menstruum	Relative polarity
Water	1.00
Vinegar (like water but also acidic)	~ 1
Glycerin (glycerol)	0.81
Ethanol (100%)	0.65
Olive and other fixed oils	~ 0
Carbon dioxide (CO₂)	~ 0

A tincture is made with a hydroethanolic solvent system (menstruum) containing both mid-polarity ethanol and high-polarity water. By adjusting the ethanol (EtOH) percentage, we are tuning the overall polarity of the menstruum. More EtOH in the menstruum → lower polarity; less EtOH → higher polarity. This is one reason tinctures are so versatile — by choosing the right EtOH–water ratio, we design the menstruum to selectively extract constituents by polarity matching. In other words, menstruum composition strongly influences the phytochemical profile of the resulting tincture (1,5).

Hydroethanolic solvents

“K” is one way to quantify polarity. Since water is highly polar and ethanol (EtOH) is moderately polar, mixing them together in different proportions will create a menstruum with a specific polarity. The higher the % EtOH, the lower the polarity of the hydroethanolic solvent system (menstruum). We tincture different herbs with different % EtOH to match the polarity of the constituents we want to extract from those herbs.

EtOH / Water	~ K	EtOH / Water	~ K
100% water	80	60% EtOH	47
10% EtOH / 90% H2O	74.5	70% EtOH	41.5
20% EtOH	69	80% EtOH	36
30% EtOH	63.5	90% EtOH	30.5
40% EtOH	58	95% EtOH	27.8
50% EtOH	52.5	100% EtOH	25

In herbal pharmacy, “yield” indicates the amount of finished tincture collected. But from a phytochemical perspective, “yield” usually refers to the concentration of a constituent in the product. A high constituent yield is often but not always better. For example, an extraction rich in astringent tannins may be more appropriate in some cases (surface inflammation, excessive secretion) and less appropriate in others (dry conditions, sensitive digestive mucosa). What matters is whether the preparation delivers the appropriate concentration of the desired spectrum of constituents for a particular therapeutic application.

Polarity is central, but several additional factors can influence the concentration of constituents in our extractions:

Temperature

Heat is a kind of kinetic energy that physically increases the extraction of most constituents. At the same time, some kinds of constituents are sensitive and will degrade with excessive heat. We learn to choose the optimal temperature for an extraction solvent, and to apply heat for the right period of time (e.g., infusion vs. decoction).

Time

Longer contact between solvent and herb generally enhances extraction up to a point, but the optimal time is influenced by factors including plant matrix, surface area, agitation, constituent class, and type of preparation.

Surface area

Chopping, grinding, or powdering increases surface area of the plant matrix, facilitating solvent–constituent contact and enhancing extraction. Very fine powders, however, can complicate filtration.

Agitation

Shaking or stirring increases kinetic jostling between solvent and constituents, usually accelerating extraction and constituent yield.

Pressure

Increasing pressure (e.g., in a tightly closed canning jar or electric pressure cooker) usually enhances extraction.

Plant matrix

Constituents may extract somewhat differently depending on how they are packaged within plant tissues. Delicate structures like flowers yield their constituents more readily than tough structures like seed coats or root barks. Cellular structure and co-constituents such as mucilages, tannins, and resins can also alter extractability.

Taken together, these variables should be considered as part of the extraction method; they help explain why preparations of the same herb in the same solvent can be noticeably different. The combination of botanical quality, solvent, and extraction method largely determines constituent yield and product quality.

Water

Water excels for higher-polarity constituents such as mucilages, polysaccharides, sugars, and some kinds of glycosides. It is the preferred solvent for making teas, infusions, and decoctions. Hot water almost always works better than cold water.

Hydroethanolic solvent systems (menstrua)

Lower % EtOH generally favours more polar compounds; higher % EtOH extracts lower-polarity constituents. Rather than a single “correct” percentage for each herb, it’s more accurate to think in ranges that can be adjusted to extract particular constituent families. Depending on your menstruum composition, you can create multiple different medicines from a single herb.

Glycerin and honey

Glycerin is a viscous and polar solvent, often used when alcohol is not desired. It can extract many water-soluble constituents along with a moderate concentration of aromatics, though it is generally less efficient than ethanol for lower-polarity constituents. However, its extraction spectrum can be increased considerably by employing heat, pressure, and agitation. As a solvent, honey behaves similarly to glycerin.

Vinegar

Vinegar is an acidic aqueous solvent. Acidity can change the solubility of certain constituents, particularly alkaloids, by shifting them into more water-soluble ionic forms (1,4). Traditional vinegars and oxymels (made by combining infused vinegars and honeys) offer versatile, alcohol-free alternatives to hydroethanolic tinctures or glycerites.

Fixed oils

Botanical oils such as olive, safflower, or coconut are both therapeutic substances and low-polarity solvents. Herb-infused oils feature low-polarity, lipophilic constituents including many terpenoids and some phenolics, making them valuable for topical preparations. Culinary preparations such as infused ghee or vinegar-and-oil salad dressings can also double as herbal products. Oils are generally unsuitable solvents for mineral salts and polar constituents including mucilages and glycosides.

Supercritical carbon dioxide

Supercritical carbon dioxide (CO₂) extraction is sometimes used for low-polarity constituents (e.g., gingerols from ginger (Zingiber officinale) curcuminoids from turmeric (Curcuma longa), cannabinoids from hemp (Cannabis sativa)). This modern method uses high-pressure, low-temperature conditions, with the advantage that CO₂ leaves no solvent residue in the finished product. CO₂ extracts are good at preserving the characteristic flavours and aromas of herbs. They are especially suitable for use in highly concentrated formulas delivered in capsules. (2)

Betalains are the vivid, water-soluble pigments responsible for red-violet and yellow-orange colours in plants such as beetroot (Beta vulgaris) and prickly pear (Opuntia ficus-indica) fruit, as well as edible greens including red orach (Atriplex hortensis var. rubra) and purslane (Portulaca oleracea). These medicinal food-herbs (and their betalains) have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and broad-spectrum bioprotective effects. (3)

Betalains are highly polar. This predicts several practical outcomes:

• They extract readily into water and other higher-polarity solvents such as lower % EtOH menstrua. Betalain extraction decreases as EtOH percentage increases.
• Glycerin and honey can be suitable solvents, especially when gently warmed to decrease their viscosity.
• Vinegar (which is mostly water) is a good solvent for betalains.
• Betalains are not lipophilic; they do not extract well into fixed oils.

As another example, echinacea (Echinacea spp.) contain several important groups of constituents — immunomodulating polysaccharides (IP), alkamides, and polyphenols including phenolic acids and flavonoid glycosides. Each group has a characteristic polarity range (4). IP are quite polar and most soluble in hot water; alkamides have moderate polarity and favour 50–60% EtOH menstrua; and the polyphenols are mid- to higher-polarity constituents that extract fairly well with both hot water and lower % EtOH. 

Since all these constituents are bioactive, which solvent is “best”? We could bypass this question by delivering a dose of the tincture in a water-based extract like an infusion or decoction!

1. Lee JE, Jayakody JTM, Kim JI, et al. The influence of solvent choice on the extraction of bioactive compounds from Asteraceae: a comparative review. Foods. 2024;13(19):3151. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13193151 
2. Uwineza PA, Waśkiewicz A. Recent advances in supercritical fluid extraction of natural bioactive compounds from natural plant materials. Molecules. 2020;25(17):3847. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25173847 
3. Sadowska-Bartosz I, Bartosz G. Biological properties and applications of betalains. Molecules. 2021;26(9):2520. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26092520 
4. Petrova A, Ognyanov M, Petkova N, Denev P. Phytochemical characterization of purple coneflower roots (Echinacea purpurea (L.) Moench.) and their extracts. Molecules. 2023;28(9):3956. https://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/28/9/3956 
5. Ganora L. Herbal Constituents: Foundations of Phytochemistry. 2nd ed. Louisville, CO: HerbalChem Press; 2021. https://www.herbalconstituents.com/book 

• 250 g fresh plant material 
• 750 ml filtered or spring water (enough to cover the plant material)

• Large pot with a tight fitting domed lid 
• Heat proof bowl with a 600 ml capacity 
• Trivet or ramekin 
• 1 kg ice cubes 
• Sterile glass bottle

1. Chop the rose petals. 
2. Place in the pot and cover with the filtered water (do not overfill so the plant is flooded).
3. Place the trivet on top of the plant material and water like a platform (this is to raise the collection bowl so it is collecting steam, not boiling water).
4. Place the collection bowl on top of the trivet. 
5. Place the lid on the pot upside down, so the steam runs down the inside of the lid and into the bowl. 
6. Place ice into the domed lid. 
7. Bring the mixture to a gentle simmer. Be careful to avoid vigorous boiling as it will reduce the aroma of the water. 
8. Continue until most water has evaporated and condensed into the bowl.*
9. Once the water has been evaporated, carefully remove the glass bowl and retain the water inside it— this is the aromatic water. 
10. Bottle in sterile bottles, label and keep in the fridge. 

* If the lid is too small to hold all the ice, it may require regular topping up to ensure it stays cold. 

Aromatic waters should be stored in the fridge and consumed within one month. They can also last for up to six months if they remain unopened. 

Floral waters should be discarded if there are any noticeable signs of decay such as cloudiness, a musty or sour smell, visible mould or gas/bubbles in the water.

Hydrosols can be used medicinally, and offer a safe, alcohol-free alternative for those who are not able to take alcohol. They can be safely used in children at the correct dose.

Can I consume a hydrosol internally?

Yes, hydrosols can be consumed internally; however, it is advisable to consume them within three months if they have been kept in the fridge. It is advisable to check the liquid for any signs of decay or mould and should be discarded if any are visible. 

Are hydrosols safe for children?

Hydrosols can be safe and effective for children internally, however their safety depends on the herb used. Some examples which are commonly considered safe include rose, chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla), lemon balm (Melissa officinalis) and lavender (Lavandula angustifolia). 

• 3 large garlic bulbs
• 500 g raw, organic, unpasteurised honey

1. Peel the cloves and slightly crush or bruise each clove but do not cut or mince. 
2. Place the garlic into a 750 ml kilner jar.  
3. Pour the honey over the garlic, making sure all the garlic is fully submerged. 
4. Leave 2–3 cm of space at the top. 
5. Stir gently to remove all air bubbles. 
6. Ensure no garlic is exposed above the honey. There is the option to use a fermentation weight, or a small saucer to ensure all the garlic is fully submerged. 
7. Allow to ferment for between 4–6 weeks. 

Take one teaspoon of the honey at the first sign of symptoms. For a more potent dose, include a garlic clove in the spoonful. 

Honey has a demulcent action, and therefore this remedy can be used to soothe sore throats and coughs. 

Avoid in infants under one year old.

Storing the honey at room temperature will allow the gentle fermentation to occur, whereas cooler temperatures will limit fermentation.

Garlic (Allium sativum): A broad spectrum antimicrobial herb, expressing antibacterial, antiviral and antifungal properties, including against gram positive, gram negative and some antibiotic resistant strains in vitro (5,6).

Garlic also provides considerable cardiovascular support, and research shows it can reduce both systolic and diastolic blood pressure, helping to support those with hypertension (7,8). Many of its medicinal actions result from levels of alliin and allicin, the latter of which is released upon breaking a clove, whilst the former is stable in intact garlic (9).

What other herbs can I add to fermented honey?

Additional herbs such as thyme (Thymus vulgaris), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) or ginger (Zingiber officinale) can be added for additional antibacterial and antiviral actions. The ginger has its own natural sugars and water content and so, will increase fermentation activity slightly and more bubbles may be noticeable, however it will still be self limiting (3). 

How do I know if my garlic honey ferment has gone off?

Normal signs of fermentation include smelling sweet, garlicky or slightly savoury; gentle bubbling and garlic darkening or softening. The honey will also naturally become thinner over time. If there are any signs of mould (white, green, black or blue); the garlic is exposed above the honey with mould growth or there is a rotten smell then discard the ferment on the compost (3,4). 

Can garlic honey cause botulism?

The risk is extremely low as honey is acidic and has a high sugar concentration. No extra water is added to the ferment. Follow the precautions mentioned above to minimise the risk including submerging the garlic and not adding water (3). 

1. Eteraf-Oskouei T, Najafi M. Traditional and Modern Uses of Natural Honey in Human Diseases: A Review. Iranian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences. 2013;16(6):731. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3758027/ 
2. Palma-Morales M, Huertas JR, Rodríguez-Pérez C. A Comprehensive Review of the Effect of Honey on Human Health. A Comprehensive Review of the Effect of Honey on Human Health. 2023;15(13):3056-3056. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15133056 
3. Katz SE. The Art of Fermentation : An In-Depth Exploration of Essential Concepts and Processes from around the World. Chelsea Green Pub; 2012.
4. Redzepi R, Zilber D, Sung E, Troxler P. The Noma Guide to Fermentation. New York Artisan; 2018.
5. Li G, Ma X, Deng L, et al. Fresh Garlic Extract Enhances the Antimicrobial Activities of Antibiotics on Resistant Strains in Vitro. Jundishapur Journal of Microbiology. 2015;8(5). https://doi.org/10.5812/jjm.14814 
6. Mcintyre A. The Complete Herbal Tutor : The Definitive Guide to the Principles and Practices of Herbal Medicine. Aeon; 2019.
7. Wang HP, Yang J, Qin LQ, Yang XJ. Effect of Garlic on Blood Pressure: A Meta-Analysis. The Journal of Clinical Hypertension. 2015;17(3):223-231. https://doi.org/10.1111/jch.12473 
8. Ried K. Garlic Lowers Blood Pressure in Hypertensive Individuals, Regulates Serum Cholesterol, and Stimulates Immunity: An Updated Meta-analysis and Review. The Journal of Nutrition. 2016;146(2):389S396S. https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.114.202192 
9. Amagase H. Clarifying the Real Bioactive Constituents of Garlic. The Journal of Nutrition. 2006;136(3):716S725S. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/136.3.716s 

• 250 g powdered or finely chopped medicinal mushrooms
• 500 ml of 45% vodka or organic food grade ethanol 
• 500 ml filtered water

• Two 1.5 l kilner jars 
• Muslin 
• Funnel 
• Amber storage bottles

• Place the 250 g dried mushrooms in the glass jar and cover with 500 ml alcohol, ensuring all plant material is submerged. 
• Seal the jar and leave in a cool, dark place to macerate for four weeks. Stir the mixture regularly and top up with more alcohol if necessary. 
• Strain the mixture through muslin. This can be repeated a couple of times for a clearer mixture with fewer particles. 
• Reserve the strained alcohol extract and the mushroom marc for the following steps. 
• Place the strained mushroom marc into a saucepan along with a litre of water. If there is extra dried mushroom material, it can be added in this step to make a stronger decoction. 
• Simmer gently for 2–3 hours, making sure the mixture does not boil. 
• The mixture should reduce down to roughly 500 ml. 
• Strain and allow the decoction to cool. 
• Combine both the alcohol extract (500 ml) and the decoction (500 ml) to make a litre of 1:2 22.5% alcohol. 
• To ensure the shelf life and stability, add a further 125 ml of alcohol to bring the finished mixture to 25%. 
• Pour the finished mixture into amber glass jars, label and store in a cool dark place. 

For dosage, see our individual mushroom monographs for suggested daily quantities and to check for any associated cautions and contraindications before consumption.

Reishi

Reishi (Ganoderma lucidum) is a well renowned mushroom has been used in China for thousands of years to promote health and longevity. Reishi has broad spectrum benefits for immunological, cardiovascular and nervous system conditions. It has a neuroprotective action and helps to reduce the risk of neurodegenerative diseases; as well as being an immunomodulator, reishi helps to support allergies and reduce inflammation (2). 

Turkey tail

Turkey tail (Trametes versicolor) is a powerful immunomodulator whose actions are attributed to the presence of polysaccharide-krestin (PSK) and polysaccharide-peptide (PSP). It has wide ranging actions on the immune system, helping to fight viral and bacterial infections including human papillomavirus (HPV) and Herpes simplex virus (HSV) (3). Turkey tail is used as an adjunct therapy in cancer treatment in Japan as a result of its immune supportive effects (2). 

Lion’s mane

Lion’s mane (Hericium erinaceus) is used to support the brain and nervous system. It has been shown to increase the production of nerve growth factor (NGF), helping to stimulate the production of nerve cells (2). It helps to stimulate the process of myelination, which is key in the transmission of electrical nerve impulses. It is a neuroprotective which helps to support cognitive function and reduce the risk of neurodegenerative diseases (4). 

This tincture should keep for up to a year and half if it’s kept in a cool place out of direct sunlight. It should be checked regularly for signs of mould or decay and discarded if any is found.

Can you use fresh mushrooms for this tincture recipe?

In order to ensure the correct water and alcohol content of the alcohol extraction, and ensure shelf life, it is best to use dried mushrooms. Freshly picked or foraged mushrooms can be dried in a dehydrator or on a low heat in the oven then powdered in a nutribullet. 

What alternative species can you use for mushroom tincture?

This recipe can be used for all species of medicinal mushroom. If you have multiple different species of mushroom, you can also combine all of them to make a mixed mushroom dual extraction tincture. Safety note: If you are foraging for medicinal mushrooms, it is essential to ensure correct identification of the mushroom before tincturing. 

Can you use whole mushrooms for tincture?

This recipe is most effective when the mushrooms are in the smallest possible particle size giving a larger surface area for extraction. This can be done by chopping very finely, or using a blender to create a powder.

• 25 g bitter orange (Citrus aurantium) peel 
• 25 g angelica (Angelica archangelica) root 
• 12.5 g gentian (Gentiana lutea) root 
• 12.5 g dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) root 
• 12.5 g cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) pods
• 12.5 g fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) seeds 
• 300 ml 45% ethanol (vodka is also effective)

• Sterilised mason jar
• 100 ml dropper bottle 
• 500 ml amber glass bottle

1. Place the dried herbs in a herb or spice blender and blend until they are finely ground. 
2. Cover the herbs with the alcohol and seal. 
3. Leave the herbs for 3–4 weeks to macerate. 
4. Strain the mixture through a fine muslin cloth and retain the liquid. 
5. Fill the 100 ml dropper bottle and retain the rest of the mix to refill the dropper bottle once it’s run out.  
6. Take one pipette before meals to stimulate digestion. 

The mixture should be stored in a cool, dark place, ideally in an amber glass bottle to prevent photodegradation (damage from light). 

The smaller mixture can be kept in the 100 ml dropper bottle, so it can be easily portable and taken throughout the day.

• Bitter orange peel increases the secretion of gastric fluid, including gastric enzymes and stomach acid. In traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), bitter orange peel is known to alleviate qi stagnation in the digestive tract, helping to relieve bloating, discomfort or heaviness (3).
• Angelica is a warming, stimulating and aromatic bitter which is also a sialagogue (stimulates the production of saliva). It contains high levels of bitter compounds as well as volatile oils which help to stimulate appetite and digestion as well as relieve irritation in the gastrointestinal tract (4). 
• Gentian is a traditional bitter remedy known for its cooling action on the gastrointestinal tract. It is a digestive tonic which helps to stimulate bile production, helping with nutrient assimilation and appetite stimulation (4).
• Dandelion root is a gentle but effective bitter remedy with additional mucilaginous compounds. Dandelion also contains inulin which supports digestion through its prebiotic effect. Additionally, it is a liver tonic, helping to improve hepatic function and elimination (4).
• Cardamom is a warming aromatic herb rich in volatile oils which reduces inflammation in the gastrointestinal tract, stimulates digestive enzymes and reduces mucus formation (4).
• Fennel is a well-renowned digestive tonic, fennel contains multiple aromatic compounds which help to facilitate digestion, stimulate appetite and assist with the digestion of fats. It is also an antispasmodic and can help to relieve bloating, flatulence and abdominal cramps (4). 

What can I use instead of alcohol?

This recipe can also be made using organic vinegar instead of alcohol for those who wish to avoid alcohol. 

When is the best time to take digestive bitters?

The ideal time to take digestive bitters is just prior to a meal for stimulation of digestive function; however, they can also be used post mealtimes to aid digestion and reduce bloating and flatulence. 

1. Bone K, Mills S. Principles and Practice of Phytotherapy: Modern Herbal Medicine. 2nd ed. Edinburgh Churchill Livingstone, Elsevier; 2013.
2. Hundt M, Basit H, John S. Physiology, Bile Secretion. Nih.gov. Published 2022. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470209/ 
3. Bensky D, Gamble A, Kaptchuk D. Chinese Herbal Medicine : Materia Medica. Eastland; 1993.
4. Mcintyre A. Complete Herbal Tutor : The Definitive Guide to the Principles and Practices of Herbal Medicine (Second Edition). Aeon Books Limited; 2019.

Arguably, one of the most interesting and useful qualities of essential oils is how they can have a direct impact on our nervous system, simply through inhaling them. Olfaction, or our sense of smell, is one of the lesser-understood senses and has the power to evoke moods or memories almost instantaneously when we inhale an evocative aroma (1).

When we inhale, essential oil molecules can pass through into our olfactory bulb, the organ that detects scents, and are then recognised by smell receptors.

The olfactory bulb is directly connected to the brain (2) and passes the aroma nerve impulse generated by the aromatic molecule, which is sent directly into our limbic system – the part of the brain that is associated with emotion and memory (3).

As such, essential oils can have a profound impact on our mood since the nerve impulses triggered by smells pass through the amygdala – the part of the brain associated with interpreting the “emotional significance” (4) of what is around us – as well as impacting the hypothalamus, which largely controls our endocrine (hormonal) system. The production of hormones is often influenced by what we inhale (5) and variations in hormone levels can have a significant effect on our mood, as well as the status of our nervous system (6).

When our sympathetic nervous system is activated, we are in ‘fight or flight’ or “hyperarousal” mode, and as such, cortisol (commonly known as the stress hormone, although we need it for various functions in the body) levels are typically high (7). This can prevent our parasympathetic nervous system from activating, which is responsible for helping us feel calm and relaxed.

The parasympathetic nervous system is sometimes described as putting the ‘brakes’ on the sympathetic nervous system (8), preventing or slowing its activation, and allowing our body to enter the ‘rest and digest’ mode needed for sound sleep.

So, if we are experiencing high levels of brain activity, lots of stimulation or anxiety before bed, this can significantly impact our body’s ability to regulate and produce the hormones necessary for sleep.

Research papers suggest that cortisol levels are higher in those experiencing insomnia (9), and others note that stress in particular inhibits slow-wave sleep (10) which is thought to be the most restorative form of sleep (11).

There are a number of approaches to promoting restful sleep, with tips for creating a bedtime routine, reserving the bedroom for rest, exercising and finding other ways to de-stress (12).

Whilst aromatherapy is not a cure for serious sleep disorders such as insomnia, it can play a part in the wider picture of developing healthy ‘sleep hygiene’ (13).

Since aromatherapy taps directly into the nervous system and can therefore cause the production or reduction of hormones in the brain and rest of the body, it is a useful tool in our arsenal for helping to create the right internal environment in the body which can allow sleep to come.

Aromatherapy in the context of sleep has a strong focus on reducing stress, promoting a calm, positive mood, and gently allowing the nervous system to re-regulate. This decreases the activity of the sympathetic nervous system, and allows the parasympathetic nervous system to naturally activate as the hormonal ‘barriers’ such as cortisol are allowed to decrease. It also focuses on creating a positive environment to allow the client to reframe their approach to sleep and relaxation.

Creating mood-aroma associations

Throughout our lives, we might have developed positive emotional associations with some aromas, and not with others. This phenomenon is due to the link with between and our limbic system. The good news is that we can harness this link to our advantage, creating a “smell-mood memory” (14), establishing (or reinforcing) positive associations between aroma and mood that help us feel rested and ready for sleep.

For example, if a client comes to see me for help addressing insomnia or broken sleep, over the course of our treatments, I will co-create a blend of essential oils with them, using oils which already have a strong, positive and calming emotional association for them, or are new, but that they find calming. Then, over time, they begin to associate with a calm, restful time and environment – their monthly massage treatment.

My favourite essential oils for treating sleep disorders are those that work to calm the nervous system whilst also relaxing the muscles. By regulating our breathing, slowing our heart rate and releasing tension from muscles, we can ‘tell’ our brain that it’s time to rest, and literally trigger the activation of our parasympathetic nervous system (15).

Inhalation, as well as topical application of essential oils, can be synergistic since inhalation is the most effective way to use aromatherapy for psychotherapeutic effect (16).

Below, you will find some information and recipes for aromatherapy blends to support you the get a good night’s sleep.

Therapeutic touch to calm the body

Massage itself is also a brilliant way to prepare the body for rest. Moderate pressure massage can generate a response from the parasympathetic nervous system (17), and therefore support the work of the aromatic oils which are applied to the body topically as part of a blend in a base oil, and then absorbed into the bloodstream, and inhaled by the client as they receive the massage treatment.

Creating a sleep blend of calming essential and carrier oils and applying it to your neck, shoulders and arms 30 minutes before sleep as part of a wider wind-down ritual is soothing for the nervous system on both levels.

Suggested blend for pre-sleep massage or bath oil (2% blend)

Ingredients

10ml carrier oil e.g. sunflower oil (Helianthus annuus)

10 drops (total) of ant-spasmodic, anti-inflammatory, anxiolytic and nervine essential oils, to include any of the following:

• German Chamomile Matricaria recutita (anti-inflammatory, nervine, sedative)
• Roman Chamomile Chamaemelum nobile (anti-inflammatory, nervine, sedative)
• Lavender Lavandula angustifolia (anti-inflammatory, analgesic, sedative, relaxant, hypotensive)
• Juniper Juniperus communis (antispasmodic, analgesic)
• Mandarin (Citrus reticulata (antidepressant, antispasmodic, sedative for central nervous system, relaxant)
• Marjoram Origanum majorana. (relaxant, hypotensive oil, musculoskeletal antispasmodic)

How to make a pre-sleep massage oil

Stir well to combine, and apply to the affected area using gentle massage, preferably on warm skin. This is particularly effective post-shower or bath.

Inhalation to soothe the mind

Perhaps the simplest and most effective way for generating an impact on our mood and emotions, inhalation is my preferred method of application for regulating sleep. I have found that for myself and my clients, using a diffuser or aromatherapy inhaler 30-60 minutes before sleep whilst maintaining a dimly-lit room for the same amount of time can help to create a contextual association between “down time”, the aroma, and feeling calm. By reinforcing this routine daily, you can help to cement an ‘odour response’ (18) and with time may find that sleep is improved.

Suggested Inhaler sleep blend

Using a diffuser, fill with water to the maximum fill line and add up to ten drops of the following essential oils. Diffuse for 30-60 minutes before sleep, in the bedroom.

• Tarragon* (Artemisia dracunculus): Antispasmodic, hypnotic, neuromuscular tonic
• Bergamot (Citrus bergamia): Calming, antispasmodic
• Clary sage* (Salvia sclarea): Calming, sedative, tonic
• Cypress (Cupressus sempervirens): Antispasmodic, balances sympathetic nervous system
• Geranium (Pelargonium graveolens): Anxiolytic, antispasmodic, anti-inflammatory
• Jasmine (Jasminum officinale): Sedative, calming, antispasmodic

*Caution: avoid in pregnancy

Sleep ointment recipe

Mmakes 1 ~60ml pot at a ~2% dilution

Ingredients

8g Beeswax (or soy wax)

50ml Carrier oil, e.g. herbal infused St John’s Wort (Hypericum perforatum) oil, or sweet almond (Prunus dulcis) oil

30 drops of total essential oil from the following list:

• Marjoram (Origanum majorana) – works to calm the nervous system whilst simultaneously relaxing muscle tissue
• Grapefruit (Citrus paradisii) – a “cooling, cleansing” (19) oil that clears the mind and helps ease feelings of frustration and tension.
• Valerian (Valeriana officinalis) – a sedative essential oil that helps relax the body and mind, and relieve stress
• Vetiver (Vetiveria zizanoides) – sedative, grounding, and calming

Orange Petitgrain Citrus arurantium amara (fol). – uplifting without being stimulating, antispasmodic and calming. Particularly useful for nervous exhaustion.

How to make a sleep oil

1. Use a bain-marie on a low heat to melt the carrier oils and wax together. Stir until completely melted and combined.
2. Take off the heat. Allow to cool to 50-60 degrees C.
3. Add up to 57 drops of essential oils, from those listed above.
4. Stir well to combine, pour into a 60ml sterilised tin and allow to cool.
5. When solid, the balm is ready to use. Use within 6 months.
6. Apply topically to the neck, shoulders and arms 30 minutes before bed, massaging gently.

The wider picture of sleep

These recipes and suggestions are designed by a clinical aromatherapist to help support you to integrate aromatherapy into your pre-sleep ritual. Whilst aromatherapy has been shown by studies to improve sleep quality (20) these blends are not designed to cure insomnia or other disorders, and are to be used as part of a holistic approach to promoting healthy sleep which might include addressing areas such as food, exercise, levels of stimulation, reducing stress and establishing a regular sleep routine.

1. Martin, I. (2007). Aromatherapy for Massage Practitioners (1st ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
2. Martin, I. (2007). Aromatherapy for Massage Practitioners (1st ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
3. Walsh, C. (2020, February 27). How scent, emotion, and memory are intertwined – and exploited. Harvard Gazette. https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2020/02/how-scent-emotion-and-memory-are-intertwined-and-exploited/#:~:text=Smells%20are%20handled%20by%20the,related%20to%20emotion%20and%20memory.
4. Ramachandran, V. S., & Blakeslee, S. (1998). Phantoms in the brain: Probing the mysteries of the human mind. William Morrow.
5. Lobmaier, J. S., Fischbacher, U., Wirthmüller, U., & Knoch, D. (2018, September 12). The scent of attractiveness: Levels of reproductive hormones explain individual differences in women’s body odour. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. Retrieved December 1, 2022, from https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2018.1520
6. Harvard Health Publishing, Harvard Medical School. (2020, July 6). Understanding the stress response. Harvard Health. Retrieved December 1, 2022, from https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/understanding-the-stress-response
7. American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Stress effects on the body. American Psychological Association. Retrieved December 1, 2022, from https://www.apa.org/topics/stress/body#:~:text=When%20the%20body%20is%20stressed%2C%20the%20SNS%20contributes%20to%20what,adrenalin%20(epinephrine)%20and%20cortisol.
8. Harvard Health Publishing, Harvard Medical School. (2020, July 6). Understanding the stress response. Harvard Health. Retrieved December 1, 2022, from https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/understanding-the-stress-response
9. Roehr, T., & Roth, T. (2019, April 25). Hyperarousal in insomnia: Pre-sleep and diurnal cortisol levels in response to chronic zolpidem treatment. Sleep Medicine. Retrieved December 1, 2022, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S138994571930125X
10. Kim, E.-J., & Dimsdale, J. E. (2007). The effect of psychosocial stress on sleep: A review of polysomnographic evidence. Behavioral Sleep Medicine, 5(4), 256–278. https://doi.org/10.1080/15402000701557383
11. Dijk, D.-J. (2009, April 15). Regulation and functional correlates of slow wave sleep. Journal of clinical sleep medicine : JCSM : official publication of the American Academy of Sleep Medicine. Retrieved December 1, 2022, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2824213/
12. Harvard Health Publishing, Harvard Medical School. (2021, September 30). 8 secrets to a good night’s sleep. Harvard Health. Retrieved December 1, 2022, from https://www.health.harvard.edu/newsletter_article/8-secrets-to-a-good-nights-sleep
13. Sleep Foundation. (2022, September 29). Sleep hygiene. Sleep Foundation. Retrieved December 1, 2022, from https://www.sleepfoundation.org/sleep-hygiene
14. Martin, I. (2007). Aromatherapy for Massage Practitioners (1st ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
15. André, C. (2019, January 15). Proper breathing brings better health. Scientific American. Retrieved December 1, 2022, from https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/proper-breathing-brings-better-health/
16. Mojay, G. Aromatherapy for healing the spirit. London: Gaia. 2005, p 15.
17. Diego, M. A., & Field, T. (2009). Moderate pressure massage elicits a parasympathetic nervous system response. International Journal of Neuroscience, 119(5), 630–638. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207450802329605
18. Herz, R. S. (2005, January 1). Odor-associative Learning and Emotion: Effects on Perception and Behavior. Academic.oup.com. Retrieved December 1, 2022, from https://academic.oup.com/chemse/article/30/suppl_1/i250/270391
19. Mojay, G. Aromatherapy for healing the spirit. London: Gaia. 2005, pp 80.
20. Ko, L.-W., Su, C.-H., Yang, M.-H., Liu, S.-Y., & Su, T.-P. (2021, January 13). A pilot study on essential oil aroma stimulation for enhancing slow-wave EEG in Sleeping brain. Nature News. Retrieved December 1, 2022, from https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-80171-x#:~:text=found%20that%20inhaling%20lavender%20aroma,whole%20brain%20during%20waking%20times.

• American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Stress effects on the body. American Psychological Association. Retrieved December 1, 2022, from https://www.apa.org/topics/stress/body#:~:text=When%20the%20body%20is%20stressed%2C%20the%20SNS%20contributes%20to%20what,adrenalin%20(epinephrine)%20and%20cortisol.
• André, C. (2019, January 15). Proper breathing brings better health. Scientific American. Retrieved December 1, 2022, from https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/proper-breathing-brings-better-health/
• Caddy, R. Essential oils in colour (2nd ed.). Amberwood Publishing. 1997
• Diego, M. A., & Field, T. (2009). Moderate pressure massage elicits a parasympathetic nervous system response. International Journal of Neuroscience, 119(5), 630–638. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207450802329605
• Dijk, D.-J. (2009, April 15). Regulation and functional correlates of slow wave sleep. Journal of clinical sleep medicine : JCSM : official publication of the American Academy of Sleep Medicine. Retrieved December 1, 2022, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2824213/
• Harvard Health Publishing, Harvard Medical School. (2020, July 6). Understanding the stress response. Harvard Health. Retrieved December 1, 2022, from https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/understanding-the-stress-response
• Harvard Health Publishing, Harvard Medical School. (2021, September 30). 8 secrets to a good night’s sleep. Harvard Health. Retrieved December 1, 2022, from https://www.health.harvard.edu/newsletter_article/8-secrets-to-a-good-nights-sleep
• Herz, R. S. (2005, January 1). Odor-associative Learning and Emotion: Effects on Perception and Behavior. Academic.oup.com. Retrieved December 1, 2022, from https://academic.oup.com/chemse/article/30/suppl_1/i250/270391
• Kim, E.-J., & Dimsdale, J. E. (2007). The effect of psychosocial stress on sleep: A review of polysomnographic evidence. Behavioral Sleep Medicine, 5(4), 256–278. https://doi.org/10.1080/15402000701557383
• Ko, L.-W., Su, C.-H., Yang, M.-H., Liu, S.-Y., & Su, T.-P. (2021, January 13). A pilot study on essential oil aroma stimulation for enhancing slow-wave EEG in Sleeping brain. Nature News. Retrieved December 1, 2022, from https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-80171-x#:~:text=found%20that%20inhaling%20lavender%20aroma,whole%20brain%20during%20waking%20times.
• Lobmaier, J. S., Fischbacher, U., Wirthmüller, U., & Knoch, D. (2018, September 12). The scent of attractiveness: Levels of reproductive hormones explain individual differences in women’s body odour. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. Retrieved December 1, 2022, from https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2018.1520
• Martin, I. (2007). Aromatherapy for Massage Practitioners (1st ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
• Mojay, G. Aromatherapy for healing the spirit. London: Gaia. 2005
• Ramachandran, V. S., & Blakeslee, S. (1998). Phantoms in the brain: Probing the mysteries of the human mind. William Morrow.
• Roehr, T., & Roth, T. (2019, April 25). Hyperarousal in insomnia: Pre-sleep and diurnal cortisol levels in response to chronic zolpidem treatment. Sleep Medicine. Retrieved December 1, 2022, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S138994571930125X
• Sleep Foundation. (2022, September 29). Sleep hygiene. Sleep Foundation. Retrieved December 1, 2022, from https://www.sleepfoundation.org/sleep-hygiene
• Walsh, C. (2020, February 27). How scent, emotion, and memory are intertwined – and exploited. Harvard Gazette. Retrieved December 1, 2022, from https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2020/02/how-scent-emotion-and-memory-are-intertwined-and-exploited/#:~:text=Smells%20are%20handled%20by%20the,related%20to%20emotion%20and%20memory.

Herbal syrups have to be one of the most loved herbal medicines by all, especially children. They are simple and fun to make whilst having a naturally sweet and beautiful taste. Syrups are a brilliant way to carry herbs that also captures their unique taste profile, where alcohol preparations such as tinctures may overpower.

Syrups can be made using honey, maple syrup or cane sugar. Cane sugar is a simple carbohydrate that can be used 2:1 (two parts sugar to one parts herb) whereas honey would need a higher ratio of 3:1 to act as an effective preservative.

Syrups are made from strong teas or decoctions that have been gently concentrated through a process of slow and gentle simmering. Follow the steps below to make a herbal syrup.

Herbal syrup instructions

1. For floral or herbaceous plant parts a strong tea infusion is made simmering on a low, gentle heat for 20 minutes (roots, fruits or barks would need a longer simmer of up to 1.5 hours). Usually enough water is added to cover the herb (dried or fresh herb can be used), the ratio would be so the herb is covered but also so the bottom of the pan would not be visible whilst moving a spoon through the mixture.
2. During simmering, stir occasionally with a wooden spoon (if using berries or roots use a potato masher to press the plant material, extracting more of the goodness for your medicine).
3. After simmering for the appropriate time, remove from heat and strain the infusion/ decoction using a muslin cloth on a fine sieve into a sterile container.
4. Return the infusion/ decoction to a clean pan and on the lowest heat setting add the appropriate ratio of sugar or honey until dissolved.
5. Cool the syrup, store and label in sterile glass bottle/ container in the fridge. A syrup can last between 6 months to a year in the fridge.

Calming chamomile honey syrup

Ingredients

• Chamomile (dried) 100g
• Lavender (dried) 100g
• Purified / Spring water approx 200ml (enough to cover herb well)
• Honey (approx 2 x 500g jars)

How to make chamomile honey syrup

To make this syrup follow the above instructions. Chamomile and lavender work both on the nervous and digestive systems. This sweet syrup would be helpful for anxious children who may be experiencing related digestive issues.

This same method can be used for herbs such as i.e. thyme and marshmallow (for respiratory support) or elderberry and rosehips (for immune support), experiment with blends of different plants to build up your home apothecary!

The chamomile and lavender syrup can be taken by the teaspoon up to 3 times daily. The honey syrups can be taken according to herb dosage instructions as per tinctures (see herb monographs for specific information on each herb).

Tinctures are made using either alcohol or glycerin. Vegetable glycerin is a clear, odorless liquid with a syrup-like consistency. It is usually made from vegetable oils such as soy, palm or coconut oil using high temperature and pressure, that splits the glycerin molecule from the fatty acids.

While sweet, it is not metabolised by the body like sugar. Look for an organic, sustainably harvested, non-GMO glycerin to use in medicine making (check the Resources section at the bottom).

The benefit of using glycerin is both for those wishing to avoid alcohol consumption, but an added bonus for using glycerin is that it is an excellent preservative of fresh plant juices, particularly for aromatic plants such as lemon balm, rose, violet etc. Glycerin however, is not as effective in extracting compounds from dried herb matter as an alcohol tincture.

Read our article How to make a herbal tincture.

Glycerite tincture instructions

1. Fill a clean (sterile) jar with, chopped fresh plant material or half-full of dried plant material (dried material will expand as the glycerin is absorbed).
2. A glycerite tincture should contain a minimum of 55% glycerin to herb ratio. For fresh plants, add enough glycerin to fully cover the plant matter, filling the jar to within one inch of the top. For dried herb, dilute glycerin with distilled water in a 3:1 ratio (3 parts glycerin to one part water) and fill the jar with mixture to within one inch of the top
3. Use the end of a clean wooden spoon to gently press the herb under the glycerin to ensure release of air bubbles and allow maximum coverage of materials.
4. Replace the lid and label jar.
5. Macerate or infuse the tincture for between 4-6 weeks, gently shaking the bottle every two days. Top up with glycerin as necessary if plant material is too exposed above the glycerin.
6. After 4-6 weeks, strain the tincture into a clean bowl using a muslin cloth (coffee filter paper works but very slowly; nut milk bags are also effective). With clean hands, gather corners of muslin cloth together, squeezing the tincture out until there is barely a drop left. The last few squeezes will have add some very potent mixture to the final tincture so don’t give up squeezing too quickly!
7. Finally, bottle and label your glycerite tincture. It stays in date for up to a year.

Lemon balm glycerite tincture

Ingredients

• Lemon balm (fresh leaves)
• Vegetable glycerin

How to make lemon balm tincture

Lemon balm is gently nervine and works to support our nervous system through stressful times. It is also indicated for digestive upsets and in respiratory complaints. The lemon balm tincture can be taken by the teaspoon up to twice daily.

Herbal infused or ‘macerated’ oils are a wonderful way to preserve herbs for use in topical conditions. They are also quick and incredibly simple to make and diverse in their applications.

There are a number of different methods to make herbal oils both for use in medicine and for culinary use. This method is called the solar infusion and relies on a warm sunny window.

Herbal infused oils can be used neat or can be made into salves or ointments and also blended into creams, so they are a fantastic base from which to explore other herbal preparations.

For best results use dried herbs (fresh herbs add a water element to oil, which can lead to spoiling), there are different methodologies for fresh herb oils.

Carrier oils that are ideal for topical use include sunflower and olive oils, both excellent carriers whilst offering some resistance to oxidation and rancidity. Herbs that are commonly used in herbal infused oils include calendula, St John’s wort, chickweed and plantain, all having their own unique medicinal qualities.

The most simple way to make an infused oil is as follows.

Herbal-infused oil instructions

1. Add dried herbs in a dry, sterilised container and cover with your chosen carrier oil; usually, the oil should sit 1 inch above the top of the herbs.
2. Use a spoon to press and mix the herb/ oil so that all surfaces of the herb matter is coated and no air bubbles remain.
3. Place a square piece of natural waxed paper or greaseproof paper on top of the jar, then seal jar with a tightly fitting lid.
4. Place the jar in a sunny window for between 4-6 weeks to infuse. The warmth of the sunlight will help to extract the compounds from the herbs into the oil. Stir or shake the mixture every few days.
5. When the infusion time is up, line a sieve with of muslin cloth (folded to layer up) and filter. the mixture into a clean bowl. Gather the corners of the cloth up and squeeze strongly, squeezing as much oil from the herb as possible
6. Cover and let aside overnight in a cool, dark location to allow for any herb sediment to settle at the bottom of the jar. You can also strain the oil through an unbleached coffee filter to remove fine sediment.
7. Pour the oil into dry, sterilised, dark-coloured glass bottles. You can add a couple of drops of Vitamin E into your final oil to slow down the oxidisation process, giving the oil a shelf life of around 1 year.
8. Label your infused oil, and store in a cool, dark place.

Calendula-infused oil

Ingredients

• Calendula petals
• Sunflower oil

How to make an oil infused with calendula

Calendula infused oil can be used directly on the skin to treat all manner of skin inflammations and in first aid for minor cuts, grazes, bruises, sprains and strains. Calendula oil is also useful for slow healing wounds and for the healing of minor burns. This blend can be used as and when needed, up to 3 times a day.

A herbal balm is made from a herbal infused oil, simply adding a wax element such as beeswax or (vegan) carnauba wax. Balms and salves are subsets of an ointment. Salves are typically softer, where as a balm or ointment is more solid. The benefit of infusing a wax into an oil to create balms/ salves/ ointments is that it increases binding to the skin, more successfully than an oil alone, they are also potentially, slightly less messy to use than oils.

Learn more about How to make a herbal balm.

Herbal balm instructions

1. Using a double boiler/ Bain Marie or a water bath method, on a gentle heat. Add your infused oil into the clean pan.
2. Add around 8- 12 % beeswax and gently stir with a silicone or wooden spoon until the wax has fully dissolved into the oil. Remove from the heat.
3. You can add an essential oil at this stage if desired; approx 10 drops (depending what is being used). Essential oils act as a preservative but also help to assist circulation and better absorption into the skin.
4. Slowly pour the mixture into a clean, dark glass jar. Cover but do not close the lid firmly until the balm has fully set/ solidified.
5. Label your jar and close the lid firmly. Store in a cool, dark place. Balms/ Salves/ Ointments should last for unto a year.

Calendula balm

Ingredients

• Calendula-infused oil
• Sweet orange or chamomile pure essential oil
• Beeswax (unfiltered pellets or solid form)

How to make calendula balm

Calendula balm can be used directly on the skin to treat all manner of skin inflammations and in first aid for minor cuts, grazes, bruises, sprains and strains. Calendula is also useful for slow healing wounds and for the healing of minor burns. This balm can be used as and when needed, up to 3 times a day.

For more information on uses of the herbs discussed in this article or other herbs you may wish to explore in medicine making using these recipes, visit our Herbs section.

Medicine making books and other resources

• The Handmade Apothecary by Vicky Chown and Kim Walker
• Hedgerow Remedies by Julie Barlett Bruton and Matthew Seal
• A Herbal Book of Making and Taking by Christopher Hedley
• The Herbal Medicine-Maker’s Handbook: A Home Manual by James Green
• The Herbarium is also a fantastic resource for medicine-making instructions and recipes.
• Earth Song Seeds also provides some very useful information on how to prepare herbs under the “How to…” section

A strain is caused by overstretching a muscle and/or a tendon (1), usually caused by overstretching the fibres, leading to bruising, pain, spasms, weakness, oedema (swelling) inflammation, and cramping in the muscle, and even tears in the muscle fibres (2). A sprain, in contrast, is injury to a ligament, which connects bone to bone, and is often caused by a sharp twisting motion. The symptoms are often similar to those of a strain.

Treatment of sprains and strains should be approached carefully, particularly when in the acute stage, immediately following the injury.

The role of aromatherapy here is primarily to help reduce swelling and pain through the gentle application of anti-inflammatory essential oils, and to help move lymph around the area, through the use of astringent essential oils and herbal extracts. Since temperature also has a role to play with the reduction of pain and swelling, it is advisable to use a cool pack alongside the oil blend to aid the healing process. Although the injury is acute, applying neat or undiluted essential oils to the skin is not advised, since it may cause irritation or damage to the skin.

Instead, a strong blend of around 5% can be made and applied to the area, then occluded with a cold compress, and alternated with a hot compress if desired, to increase blood flow to the area and speed up the absorption of the remedy. A carrier oil will be needed to dilute the blend; a herbal-infused oil such as arnica is helpful for addressing bruising, for example. Alternatively, witch hazel (Hamamelis virginiana), which is astringent, can be blended with a dispersant such as Solubol, and the essential oils added and applied to the area with a cold flannel.

Safety note: Do not mix witch hazel and essential oils without the dispersant, since oil and water will not mix and thus the essential oils would effectively be neat, and undiluted, and could irritate the skin.

Suggested blend for sprains and strains

5% blend

• 10ml Arnica Arnica montana-infused carrier oil e.g. Sunflower (Helianthus annuus) (or 10ml of Witch Hazel / Solubol mixture as described above)
• 10 drops (total) of cooling, anti-inflammatory astringent essential oils, to include any of the following:
  • Grapefruit (Citrus paradisii): Lymphatic drainage, astringent (Safety note: Phototoxic. Avoid application before exposure to sunlight.)
  • Juniper (Juniperus communis): Lymphatic drainage, astringent
  • German Chamomile (Matricaria recutita): Anti-inflammatory
  • Roman Chamomile (Chamaemelum mobile): Anti-inflammatory
  • Peppermint (Mentha piperita): Cooling, analgesic (Safety note: do not use whilst pregnant, breastfeeding or with children under 2 years old.)
  • Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia): Anti-inflammatory, analgesic

Stir well to combine, and apply to the affected area using gentle massage. Cover with a cold flannel or ice pack if desired.

Please note: Only use on small, injured areas, not suitable for full-body

Many of my clients exercise regularly, but also have desk-based jobs. This means that they often arrive at the clinic with various low-level aches, pains and tension which they are unable to relieve through stretching at home.

Usually poor posture or overuse of the muscle are to blame for these kinds of aches and pain, and symptoms can include pain, inflammation, oedema (swelling), tightness or tension, and reduced motion in the affected area. Also tendonitis, plantar fasciitis, or carpal tunnel syndrome may be the result of repetitive strain injury (RSI). In such instances, there are several treatment options available to clients, both at home and on the massage couch.

Preventative measures include regular stretching as part of the working day (3), and post-exercise, to ensure the muscles are adequately moved and stretched, and tension build up is prevented. Supportive desk chairs, mouse mats, and armrests can prevent RSI in the wrists, for example, and support healthy back posture whilst seated (4).

Maintaining a regular physical practice such as gentler forms of yoga, e.g. yin yoga, can also be enormously helpful for maintaining flexibility, since they focus on releasing the fascia that connects the musculoskeletal system (5), reducing tension in the muscles and keeping joints mobile. Mixing up exercise regimes and not over-working one muscle group can also help to prevent muscle pain from overuse (RSI).

However, there are always times when we might overdo it on a run or in the gym, sit for too long at our desks, or lift something heavy. We then wake up the next morning with a crick in the neck, sore legs, or a painful shoulder. Perhaps we even suffer from a ‘pinched nerve’ due to the inflammation in the surrounding muscle tissues. In these cases, aromatherapy can be a gentle and enjoyable way to help alleviate pain and tension, and to help relax and release muscle tissue.

Since pains and tension of this type tend not to be as limiting or acute as sprains, strains and other injuries, they require a different approach to treatment. Ingrid Martin recommends the use of “strongly analgesic and cooling” (6) essential oils for pain caused by overuse of a muscle, however, oils that are considered warming are also useful for longer-term chronic stiffness (7) and tension.

Some useful oils for chronic pain, tension and RSI

Carrier oils

St John’s Wort (Hypericum perforatum): herbal infused oil, e.g. sunflower Helianthus annuus. A carrier oil infused with St John’s Wort is extremely anti-inflammatory, and is recommended for bruising, reddened skin, as well as being calming for neuralgia and sciatica (inflamed nerves). The herb gives its carrier oil a gorgeous blood red colour.

Jojoba (Jojoba sinensis): Actually a liquid wax, jojoba absorbs very easily into the skin, having a similar molecular structure to that of skin’s natural sebum. It is also anti-inflammatory and is often recommended for treating arthritis and other inflammatory conditions, so can be useful for relieving chronic joint pain.

Essential oils

Cooling, anti-inflammatory essential oils such as those mentioned above for the treatment of acute injuries can also be applied here, but sometimes a more “warming” approach is needed, particularly in cases of stiffness and stagnation in the muscles and joints. Some of these oils include:

Cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum): A warming, stimulating oil that has antirheumatic properties. A lovely addition to a muscle-warming blend.

Safety note: This oil should be treated with caution and not used above 0.1% in any blend due to its skin-sensitising properties (8).

Black pepper (Piper nigrum): Another stimulating, warming oil, with anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties (9). This oil promotes good blood circulation and is particularly recommended for overworked muscles, chronic inflammation, stiffness, and both osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis (10).

Safety note: Use in low doses on sensitive skin.

Rosemary (Salvia rosmarinus): A stimulating, invigorating oil, which is an excellent vasodilator (11) and can alleviate muscle tension and pain through bringing blood to the area. “Stiffness and the related pain are usually relieved if local circulation is improved” (12) states Ingrid Martin.

Marjoram (Origanum majorana): Primarily a relaxant and hypotensive oil, which I use a lot in my clinic for clients with muscular pain and tension. Due to its ability to act on the nervous system as well as on smooth muscle tissue (13), it is a powerful oil for treating physical conditions such as muscle aches and rheumatism (14) caused by excessive tension in the body. It is an excellent accompaniment to some of the more stimulating, anti-inflammatory oils mentioned above.

I would normally combine these oils at no more than a 2% dilution in an appropriate carrier oil for use in massage during a treatment, however I regularly make muscle rubs and balms for clients to take home, as these can be useful to carry with them for use at home, work and more.

Usually, a product at a 4-5% dilution is prepared, using a mixture of carrier oils, essential oils and waxes to create a thick balm that is solid at room temperature. This is then applied three times a day to the affected area. A balm of this strength, however, would be too strong for a full-body massage, and is designed for localised, topical use only.

Muscle rub/balm recipe

Makes 1 ~60ml pot

Ingredients

• 7.15ml Beeswax (or soy wax)
• 50ml Carrier oil (e.g. herbal infused St John’s Wort oil)
• 57 drops (~2.85ml)  total essential oil (from list above)

Method

1. Use a bain-marie over a low heat to melt the carrier oils and wax together. Stir until completely melted and combined.
2. Take off the heat. Allow to cool to 50-60 degrees centigrade. If the essential oils are mixed in before the mixture is left to cool much of the essential oils will be evaporated and lost.
3. Add up to 57 drops of essential oils, from those listed above
4. Stir well to combine, pour into a 60ml sterilised tin and allow to cool
5. When solid, the balm is ready to use. Use within 6 months.
6. Apply topically to the affected area up to three times per day, massaging gently.

Fibromyalgia is a chronic health condition that can affect the whole body (15). Symptoms include increased sensitivity to pain, tenderness and soreness, fatigue, and stiffness. Brain fog, insomnia and digestive issues can also be accompanying symptoms. Whilst it has a strong muscular component, when treating fibromyalgia, an aromatherapist will take into consideration the symptoms as a whole, and create a blend of oils according to each individual’s unique needs.

Massage can be a wonderful way to treat fibromyalgia and other chronic muscular conditions, since it works not only on the site of the pain, i.e. the muscles, but on the emotional body and nervous system, too.

A 2014 systematic review concluded that “Massage therapy with duration ≥5 weeks had beneficial immediate effects on improving pain, anxiety, and depression in patients with [Fibromyalgia]. Massage therapy should be one of the viable complementary and alternative treatments for [Fibromyalgia]” (16) although more, large-scale research is needed to provide confirmation of the findings.

My favourite essential oils for treating fibromyalgia are those that work synergistically on the nervous system as well as the physical body, since my clients presenting with fibromyalgia often experience depression, anxiety, and frustration along with their chronic pain.

Inhalation as well as topical application of essential oils is key in treatment of conditions such as this, since inhalation is the most effective method of application of aromatherapy for psychotherapeutic effect (17).

Coriander seed (Coriandrum sativum)

Coriander seed is analgesic and antispasmodic, but also a powerful antidepressant oil. It is also excellent for digestive issues, and in Traditional Chinese Medicine, it is indicated for clearing ‘painful obstruction’ which refers to rheumatic pain (18).

Marjoram (Origanum majorana)

Marjoram is mentioned above, and is an excellent dual function oil, working to calm the nervous system whilst simultaneously relaxing the muscle tissue

Grapefruit (Citrus paradisii)

Grapefruit is also mentioned above; a “cooling, cleansing and decongesting” (19) oil that is helpful for clearing the mind, stimulating lymph and can help ease feelings of frustration and tension.

Safety note: Phototoxic. Avoid application before exposure to sunlight.

Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum)

Cardamom is a digestive oil, helpful for treating IBS and other digestive complaints that are often associated with Fibromyalgia. It is also considered a “gentle tonic of the brain and nervous system”(20) and therefore complements the more stimulating oils with its gentler nature.

Melissa or lemon balm (Melissa officinalis)

Melissa is one of the most regularly-used oils in my clinic. Particularly as an inhalation oil, it works beautifully, though I often include it in massage blends, too. Analgesic and anti-inflammatory, it is also calming and sedative, so can be wonderfully effective for calming the nerves and the muscle tissues. The fresh or dried leaves can also be taken as an infusion in hot water.

Safety note: Safe for topical use at dilutions of 1% or less. Melissa should be avoided if pregnant or breastfeeding.

A balm or oil blend for fibromyalgia can be made in much the same way as in the other recipes suggested above, though for full-body application, the dilution of essential oils should be no more than 2% in total, with those essential oils which are potential irritants or sensitisers being used at their much lower, appropriate dilutions.

Alternatively, a bath oil at a 2% dilution could be prepared. Heat aids the absorption of essential oils into the bloodstream, and the steam will increase the evaporation, aiding inhalation and speeding up the therapeutic properties. Equally, the heat will help to increase blood flow to the sore muscles as well as releasing tension. For a further benefit, Epsom salts (Magnesium sulphate) may be added to the bath.

The magnesium in these healing salts is known for speeding up muscle recovery and reducing inflammation (21), as well as for reducing tiredness and fatigue more generally so it may be helpful for post-workout recovery too. It can cause dehydration, though, so make sure to top up on water before and after an Epsom salt bath.

It is clear that aromatherapy products such as massage oils, therapeutic baths and muscle rubs have a large part to play in the prevention and treatment of both chronic and acute musculoskeletal conditions. These recipes and oil blend suggestions have been specifically designed for treatment of the conditions explored here.

Do check allergy information and consult a health professional before using these products on children, if you have any health conditions, are pregnant or breastfeeding.

1. Martin, I. Aromatherapy For Massage Practitioners. 1st ed. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2007: 209.
2. Mulcahey, MD, FAAOS, M., 2020. Sprains, Strains and Other Soft-Tissue Injuries – OrthoInfo – AAOS. [online] Orthoinfo.aaos.org. Available at: <https://orthoinfo.aaos.org/en/diseases–conditions/sprains-strains-and-other-soft-tissue-injuries/> [Accessed 29 July 2022].
3. nhs.uk. 2019. Common posture mistakes and fixes. [online] Available at: <https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/exercise/strength-and-flexibility-exercises/common-posture-mistakes-and-fixes/> [Accessed 29 July 2022].
4. Pruthi, M.D., S., 2021. Office ergonomics: Your how-to guide. [online] Mayo Clinic. Available at: <https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/adult-health/in-depth/office-ergonomics/art-20046169#:~:text=If%20you%20 sit%20behind%20a,joints%20stay%20 comfortable%20at%20work.> [Accessed 29 July 2022].
5. Morris, N., 2022. 5 Common Questions About Yin Yoga. [online] Yoga International. Available at: <https://yogainternational.com/article/view/questions-about-yin-yoga> [Accessed 29 July 2022].
6. Martin, I. Aromatherapy For Massage Practitioners. 1st ed. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2007: 211
7. Martin, I. Aromatherapy For Massage Practitioners. 1st ed. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2007: 211
8. Tisserand, R. and Balacs, T., 2000. Essential oil safety. London: Churchill Livingstone, pp.129-130.
9. Caddy, R. Essential oils in colour (2nd ed.). Amberwood Publishing. 1997, pp 8.
10. Caddy, R. Essential oils in colour (2nd ed.). Amberwood Publishing. 1997, pp 8.
11. Martin, I. Aromatherapy For Massage Practitioners. 1st ed. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2007: 121
12. Martin, I. Aromatherapy For Massage Practitioners. 1st ed. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2007: 121
13. Martin, I. Aromatherapy For Massage Practitioners. 1st ed. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2007: 100
14. Caddy, R. Essential oils in colour (2nd ed.). Amberwood Publishing. 1997, pp 49.
15. nhs.uk. 2022. Fibromyalgia. [online] Available at: <https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/fibromyalgia/> [Accessed 29 July 2022].
16. Li, Y., Wang, F., Feng, C., Yang, X. and Sun, Y., 2014. Massage Therapy for Fibromyalgia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomised Controlled Trials. PLoS ONE, [online] 9(2), p.e89304. Available at: <https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3930706/> [Accessed 29 July 2022].
17. Mojay, G. Aromatherapy for healing the spirit. London: Gaia. 2005, pp 15.
18. Mojay, G. Aromatherapy for healing the spirit. London: Gaia. 2005, pp 64.
19. Mojay, G. Aromatherapy for healing the spirit. London: Gaia. 2005, pp 80.
20. Mojay, G. Aromatherapy for healing the spirit. London: Gaia. 2005, pp 57.
21. Cleveland Clinic. 2022. Epsom Salt: Potential Benefits and How to Use It. [online] Available at: <https://health.clevelandclinic.org/7-things-you-probably-didnt-know-about-epsom-salt/#:~:text=Epsom%20salt%20is%20used%20to,recovery%20period%20after%20a%20workout.> [Accessed 29 July 2022].

Bibliography

• Caddy, R. Essential oils in colour (2nd ed.). Amberwood Publishing. 1997
• Cleveland Clinic. 2022. Epsom Salt: Potential Benefits and How to Use It. [online] Available at: <https://health.clevelandclinic.org/7-things-you-probably-didnt-know-about-epsom-salt/#:~:text=Epsom%20salt%20is%20used%20to,recovery%20period%20after%20a%20workout.> [Accessed 29 July 2022].
• Li, Y., Wang, F., Feng, C., Yang, X. and Sun, Y., 2014. Massage Therapy for Fibromyalgia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomised Controlled Trials. PLoS ONE, [online] 9(2), p.e89304. Available at: <https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3930706/> [Accessed 29 July 2022].
• Martin, I. Aromatherapy For Massage Practitioners. 1st ed. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2007
• Mojay, G. Aromatherapy for healing the spirit. London: Gaia. 2005
• Morris, N., 2022. 5 Common Questions About Yin Yoga. [online] Yoga International. Available at: <https://yogainternational.com/article/view/questions-about-yin-yoga> [Accessed 29 July 2022].
• Mulcahey, MD, FAAOS, M., 2020. Sprains, Strains and Other Soft-Tissue Injuries – OrthoInfo – AAOS. [online] Orthoinfo.aaos.org. Available at: <https://orthoinfo.aaos.org/en/diseases–conditions/sprains-strains-and-other-soft-tissue-injuries/> [Accessed 29 July 2022].
• nhs.uk. 2019. Common posture mistakes and fixes. [online] Available at: <https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/exercise/strength-and-flexibility-exercises/common-posture-mistakes-and-fixes/> [Accessed 29 July 2022].
• Pruthi, M.D., S., 2021. Office ergonomics: Your how-to guide. [online] Mayo Clinic. Available at: <https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/adult-health/in-depth/office-ergonomics/art-20046169#:~:text=If%20you%20sit%20behind%20a,joints%20stay%20comfortable%20at%20work.> [Accessed 29 July 2022].
• Tisserand, R. and Balacs, T., 2000. Essential oil safety. London: Churchill Livingstone
• https://www.herbalreality.com/conditions/musculoskeletal-system/

Guggulu (Commiphora mukul) as it is known in Ayurveda, or myrhh as it’s known in the West, is a highly popular ingredient in a number of important Ayurvedic remedies; in this introductory article we will take a closer look at its medicinal application as well as its recommended purification techniques (1).

Guggulu is the common name of this plant; the meaning of its name something akin to ‘having excellent benefit’. The categorisation of guggulu is a slightly complex affair as Ayurveda advises us that five colours abound. These very simply are: Mhashya (a blackish/brown colour and most suited to human patients, mahaneed, having a bluish colouration (indeterminate use (2)), kumud (having a pale or whitish colour), padma (brownish in colour and suited more to use on animals) and finally, kanak (yellowish in colour and most suited to human patients).

Typically, two varieties of guggulu are seen in the marketplace (3), these being: kana-guggulu, a greenish/yellow variety; and mhasha-guggulu, a blackish brown variety.   

Commiphora mukul is a smallish, thorny tree, usually 1.5–2 meters in height. It is found in South Asia, the Middle East and Africa, favouring an arid climate. In India, it is typically found in the Indian states of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Assam, Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka. The flowers of guggulu are reddish brownish, its leaves rounded, serrated and waxy looking. The fruits of this tree are reddish, pulpy and rounded.

Guggulu is an exudate or niryasa, being obtained via the method of tapping. Tapping involves stripping away or piercing the bark of the tree to facilitate the flow of its gum. Commiphora mukul has a number of ducts throughout its bark in which the oleo-gum-resin abounds. To effectively capture this exudate, large leaves or the shell of coconut is affixed around or just below the point of excision. Over a period, these receptacles slowly fill and are later collected.

Upon retrieval, the material has hardened and darkened. It is not uncommon for each catch to be contaminated with some amount of leaves, insects, bark etc. and so will need to undergo so level of cleaning, see shodhana process of guggulu.  The tree is usually harvested between May and June (4), with anywhere between 250–500 g of resin collected from each tree during any harvest season.  

Some of the more important chemical constituents of guggul (by quantity) include its gums and essential oils, sucrose, fructose, amino acids, flavonoids, α-camphorene, ellagic acid, sterols (such as guggulsterone, β-sitosterol, Z- and E-guggulsterone) and carbohydrates, as well as a variety of inorganic ions.

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1. Also guggula, guggal and gugar
2. In Ayurvedic and alchemical texts, the colour blue is usually associated with toxins and/or requiring purification/cleansing.
3. Most purified material is a slightly mixed colour, with an element of green, yellow and brown. Natural oxidation and older batches naturally darken. The traditional categorisation or colours is typical, in Ayurvedic text and sometime hard to qualify. 
4. In some cases – autumn? 

As previously mentioned, guggulu is an important medicinal compound in Ayurveda, but just how old is its use?

One of the earliest references to guggulu is found in the Atharvaveda (5). In Hymn 38 “With Guggulu, against disease“, we are told: “Disease obstructs him not, a curse attains him not, whom the agreeable odour of the healing guggulu attains. From him, diseases scatter away, like antelopes from a wild beast. If, O guggulu, thou art from the river, or if also from the ocean, the name of both have I taken, that this man may be uninjured”.

Later on, more detailed accounts of its action, uses and indications are discussed in Ayurvedic classical works such as Caraka Samhita, Susrutha Samhita and Astanga Hrdayam. All extol its healing prowess, along with its ability to reduce fat, cleanse the tissues and reduce pain, joint stiffness, inflammation and other maladies.

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5. Sometimes called the forth Veda and one most linked to the healing arts and Ayurveda, this text is tentatively dated at around 1000BCE. 

Modern Ayurvedic works define guggulu’s taste as being: bitter, pungent, sweet and astringent, with its pungency and heating qualities more prominent. The prabhava or special property of this resin is that it has beneficial effects for all Ayurvedic doshas. In those cases of diminished health, where all three doshas are involved, guggulu is often indicated as a staging post from which to strike out and combat disease.  

Guggulu has excellent anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic properties as well as regulating thyroid function. It is a powerful antioxidant, with good cardioprotective and cytotoxic properties. It also has an antimicrobial action as well as being effective in reducing a good number of complicated and difficult to treat skin diseases.

Taken internally, guggulu has an antiseptic bitter/astringent effect; it stimulates appetite and digestion as well as promoting an overall calming effect in the mind and body.

Ayurveda commonly uses this resin to treat obesity, arthritis (osteo and rheumatoid), general paralysis, diabetes, sciatica, gout and haemorrhoids/constipation. It is also useful in combatting inflammation, cysts, coronary thrombosis, anaemia and urinary calculus.

Used externally in the form of a lotion/paste (known as lepa), it has proved useful in treating stubborn skin conditions. In the form of a tincture or herbal wine, it can be useful for sore throats, tonsillitis, gum infections and toothache. Finally, Inhalation of the resins fumes (a kind of incense if you will), is recommended for hay fever, nasal catarrh, bronchitis and laryngitis.

Within the Ayurvedic formulary of India, an entire section has been dedicated to guggulu based medicines. The resin of this tree might also be said to be something of an oddity within the materia medica of Ayurveda in as much as it has something of an alchemical nature to it.  

Akin to a number of popular alchemical ingredients found in Ayurvedic medicine, the resin is advised to undergo shodhana, prior to use. Shodhana simply means to ‘clean’ or ‘make ready’ for human consumption. This is usually done through the application of heat or being immersed/triturated with other ingredients. In the case of guggulu, ‘heating’ usually means boiling it in liquids such as milk, cow’s urine or other herbal decoctions.

Upon completion, the resin is referred to as suddha-guggulu; or pure guggulu. In effect this is highly refined and filtrated form of the resin. In some cases additional processing can reduce the resin to a powder form.

Another interesting property of guggulu resin is its appearance in a mixture of five ingredients (plus borax), the combination of which is used to ‘pull’ impurities from a selection of medicinal minerals. This alchemical extraction of ‘sattva’ or essence from such materials is lesser used process but none the less effective. 

Typically the minerals in question include: copper sulphate, iron sulphate, mica and types of water soluble bitumen. These are all then mixed with borax, a natural fluxing agent. Equal amounts of honey, gunja seed powder (Abrus precatorius), jaggery (coconut sugar), ghee and guggulu are then beaten together into a waxy pulp and mixed with the aforementioned minerals.

This mass is then subjected to very high temperatures (more than 1000 degrees) in an open crucible. The end result (a fine bhasma or alchemical ash) is then reduced to a fine powder and used medicinally.

The following outlines a few variations of guggulu shodhana. Therapeutically, there seems no clear favourite amongst these, each seemingly having merit. Ultimately, processing may just be based upon circumstance, i.e. availability of purification materials and amount of final purified gum that is typically obtained.

Method 1: Steaming

1. After collecting exudate, it is hand sifted to remove any obvious inclusions such as twigs, leaves, soil and insects that may have accrued during the collection process.
2. The remaining resin is placed into a course fabric, which is tied off into a rounded bolas or parcel. These are then secured about their neck with cord.
3. A quantity of triphala decoction is prepared at a ratio of 8 parts water to 1 part triphala. This then reduced to about 50% by volume and filtered.
4. The next procedure is to prepare an apparatus known as dola Yantra or swing device. Here, the cloth parcels with guggulu resin inside can be suspended just above the triphala decoction. This type of apparatus is used a lot in Ayurvedic alchemical preparations as well, allowing essences to be retained when steaming or soak without the risk of heat damage.
5. The decoction is now brought up to a point just below a rolling boil and the cloth parcel containing guggulu is ‘steamed’ for 2–3 hours.
6. The next step is to prepare a heavy wooden board. Its surface is cleaned and smeared lightly with ghee. The contents of the cloth parcel are emptied onto the board and sifted quickly by hand. Here any unwanted material is removed and resinous material is mixed and coated with ghee.
7. After sifting, guggulu is placed into a stone mortar and pounded until a tick and even mass is achieved. To reduce stickiness, the inside of the mortar is also lightly coated in ghee. The main thing to keep in mind here is that a warm environment greatly increased the efficiency of this method. If the work area or tools is cold, the resin will be much harder to work with.

Note: the steaming method by far produces the largest amount of end product. Subsequent methods produce fewer end products, but what is produced is highly concentrated.

Method 2: Boiling

This second procedure closely parallels the method given under ‘steaming’; only here the cloth parcel is actually immersed into triphala decoction. Having been cooked for about 1.5–2 hours, the cloth is squeezed just prior to removing. This allows any remaining resin to be liberated. Having separated the resin from the gum, the remaining mass is discarded.  

Note: composting on the garden is the best use for this material.

The retained portion of liquid holds the sattva or essence of guggulu. To fully recover this, the liquid needs to be reduced on a low heat until all water is removed and only the resin remains. Toward the end of this procedure, resin will starts to cling to the surface of the pan, indicating the water content is all but gone. The final resin collected from the pan is again mixed with ghee and beaten into a homogenous lump.

It is probably worth mentioning here that the liquid content (or decoction) used in these two steps can vary according to end use, or availability. In most cases triphala decoction will be the decoction of choice, however, cows’ urine, milk, or just hot water are also likely to be employed, and roughly do the same job.

Note: Guggulu resin is only partially water soluble, reducing to a milky white consistency in heated water. While an infusion of resin in cold water will discolour a little, it will require heat to help break it up and enable you to clean up after processing.

Method 3: Frying

Using this method, Guggulu resin may be lightly fried in ghee. Using a fairly high heat, the resin liquefied and fried. This pliable mass needs to be worked quickly with a wooden spoon. When the material fully liquefies, darkens or begins to stick to the pan, the heat is terminated.  At this point, semisolid, sticky cooked resin is removed and its excess oiliness removed. When cool, the mass hardens and can be powdered.

• Kanchanara guggulu — Reduction of glandular swellings and skin diseases
• Goksuradi guggulu — Reduction of osteoarthritis and worn joints
• Kaisora guggulu — Reduction of gout and raised uric acid levels
• Yogaraj guggulu — Strengthens muscular-skeletal system, reduces pain
• Simhanada guggulu — Reduction of swellings and joint pain (rheumatoid arthritis)
• Maha-togaraj guggulu — Reduction of urinary stones, respiratory and digestive dysfunctions

Note: Guggulu appears in a good number of Ayurvedic formulas and has an entire category assigned to it in The Ayurvedic Pharmacopeia of India. It has excellent longevity as a remedy, its resin is said to have a shelf life of around 20+ years (7).

Ayurveda advises that freshly harvested resin, has a potential to aggravate skin conditions, disturb menstruation (weaken fertility), make one nauseous, create headaches, vertigo and dryness. In some cases it can produce diarrhoea and/or derange liver function. For this reason, fresh resin (less than 12 months) is recommended to be given some level of purification. Indeed, patients experiencing any of the above conditions are contraindicated.

Note: Some texts indicate saffron and curd may be used as an antidote to adverse guggulu reactions.

In the author’s experience, mature batches of guggulu (more than two years) may no longer require shodhana; however, as this processing generally adds potency to the medicine, as well as insuring purity, it seems shodhana should be performed regardless of the age of the resin.

Herbal Medicine has been around since the beginning of time, with animals and humans having interacted with plants for food and medicine from the earliest point of recorded history and beyond.

Herbal medicines are products made from botanicals, or plants, that are used to treat diseases or to support health, these can be called herbal or botanical products, or herbal/ phytomedicines. 

Herbal Medicine is often confused with Homeopathy, however whilst homeopaths and herbalists may use some of the same types of plants, these two practices and their prescriptions are very different.

Herbal Medicines are whole plant preparations. ’Whole plant’ meaning that the unrefined, raw plant matter is used to create the medicinal preparation, as opposed to the extraction of an isolated compound or chemical to create a drug (as with pharmaceuticals). Or as opposed to the highly diluted homeopathic medicines, which hold more of a ‘memory’ or ‘energetic’ quality than one of substance and chemistry.

In Herbal Medicine, plant parts such as leaves, flowers, seeds, roots, fruits and barks are used (not all at the same time, although a herbalist may sometimes use a blend of different plants or plant parts in a prescription). Herbal Medicines may also be seaweeds, algae or fungi.

Herbal Medicine is a profession in its own right. In the West, there are many professional training schools that combine biomedical and holistic sciences with practitioner development that is focused around clinical training. Enabling qualified herbal practitioners to go on and set up a practice where they are able to treat patients using a combined approach.

Anyone can call themselves a ‘Herbalist’. However, ‘Medical Herbalists’ along with clinical Chinese and Ayurvedic herbalists, are trained to a high degree level in medical subjects such as pathophysiology, diagnostics, physical examination etc, to a comprehensive standard with which they can safely work with patients. 

A qualified Herbalist qualifies through practitioner focused training centered around supervised clinical hours.

The professional training will usually be a BSc. (Hons) qualification or equivalent for example a level 6 diploma which takes them 3-4 years at least.

To find a training course or Medical Herbalist near you Herb Reality’s “Resources” page.

There are governing bodies for Herbalists such that can be found at The Herbal Alliance. Courses accredited by these governing bodies are of the highest quality as students must complete 2500 hours of class learning and 500 clinical hours

This is a saying often shared by the herbalist community to express ‘an ideal world’ modern relationship to the use of herbal medicines and herbalists.

Perhaps similar to a more community based lifestyle such as in historic times where our ancestors carried herbal knowledge about native medicines commonly used as home remedies. In an ideal world –  each household would have someone who is able to perform basic herbal first aid for minor illnesses at home, with a community Medical Herbalist to support those with more serious or long term conditions.

In the West, however, this knowledge is now much less common among the general population as it may have once been, even in our grandparent’s time. Meaning that we now have to actively re-engage with this information to return it into our lineage.

Many herbalists offer foraging walks, talks, workshops or short courses for those wanting to gain home herbalist knowledge that they can use for themselves and their close ones. As well as beginning a home library of herbal reference books, it is really worth reaching out to your local herbalist to see if they are sharing knowledge in their community. As well as running practice, this is another really important role in a herbalist’s work.

Herbal knowledge is a birthright to all of us, something that we in the West lost along the way. With the modernisation and reductionist scientific paradigm of medicine gripping society ever more firmly, herbalism was deemed ‘less medical’ and less important. However, as with much of our understanding now in the modern world, we see that returning to practices closer to nature, in structure and form serve both the health of the environment and our personal health in a truly sophisticated way. With this understanding, a future integrating natural and holistic approaches is well within sight.

With the correct use, many simple and short term illnesses can be effectively treated at home. It is advised however for more ongoing, chronic or serious illnesses, or where contraindications such as medications, pregnancies or breastfeeding need to be considered that a fully trained Medical Herbalist should be consulted.

Not only will a herbalist offer a thorough approach considering safety, a herbalist also understands that human health and the underlying causes of disease are often complex and unique to the individual.

Professional Herbalists are trained in diagnostics and pathophysiology and of course through training and practice will have a deeper understanding of the disease process and possible root causes that would inform them of the most effective approach to treatment. A herbalist is also trained to identify nutritional deficiencies or problems that may arise from our diets.

In the holistic understanding of disease a herbalist will seek to unravel the unique cause for illness or health imbalance, and in many cases through nutritional and supportive herbal intervention a herbalist will work to support their patient’s back to natural balance of health.

A herbalist treats each case individually, and therefore rarely will two people with the same condition receive the same medicine or treatment plan. This is because the holistic approach of treatment is more focused on restoring the health status of the patient based on their unique history, constitution and presenting complaints, rather than treating the symptoms i.e. where pain relief for migraines would be a symptomatic approach/ a holistic herbalist will look for cause of migraines (which can be varied) and work from there.

Consulting a professional herbalist is the best way to receive safe and effective herbal treatment.

Herbal Medicines can be used to effectively treat short term or acute illnesses at home, using simple and accessible herbs. Conveniently many are also culinary ingredients we may already have in our kitchens such as herbs, spices and foods.

A great starting point, as above mentioned is to gather a herbal reference library (book suggestions listed below). Seek out your local herbalist to see if they are offering herbal education, some accredited herbal schools and herbalists also offer online home herbalism courses which are a great way to begin your journey with herbs. Herbal Reality also offers many articles for specific conditions, as well as more general herbal healthcare.

There are a wide range of herbal medicines that can be held in a basic home first aid kit for which there are multiple applications. For example: elderflower, a safe effective medicine for treatment of seasonal allergies, which can also be used to support during a cold virus or fever; ginger – a common kitchen spice which is both excellent for sickness and nausea whilst also an excellent remedy to use during acute viral infection.

All herbs have a number of different uses, which means, just to learn about a handful of herbs there will be multiple ways they can be applied.

The most common first aid illnesses that, with the right use and dosage can be treated at home include (but are not limited to); common cold and flu, minor burns, cuts and grazes, bruises, minor infections such as conjunctivitis, gastroenteritis, acute stress etc. This said, it is always important that all the recommended safety guidelines are followed even with acute illness.

Herbs should also be used and incorporated into our daily lives, least not only when we experience ‘dis-ease’ or illness, but also as a means to support and maintain our health. This is the beauty of herbal medicine, herbs offer a multitude of active nutrients and compounds that can both increase our health resilience and can even help us prevent illness.

NOTE: To effectively and safely use herbs at home for first aid, it is important to understand first aid conditions, in particular any potential red flags or secondary complications i.e. infected wounds and ‘tracking’ which can occur when the blood becomes infected and lead to a serious condition called sepsis. Even where herbal remedies are used as a form of treatment, conventional first aid advice should always be followed.

Herbalists use a number of different preparations such as infusions (tea), tinctures (alcoholic extracts), decoctions (water), fresh plant, dried herb in form of a capsule, poultices, syrups and so on.

Many of the above preparations are easy to make for home use herbal remedies.

A herbalist will often create a blend of herbs to use in a patents prescription depending on the conditions and presentation of the individual case.

Herbs contain multiple, or sometimes hundreds of active compounds that work together to create an effect.

Some herbs compliment each other for example: compounds in black pepper support the metabolism of compounds found in turmeric, so they are often used together to enhance the effects of turmeric.

Herbal Medicines work via a mechanism of multiple compounds.

There are many unique energetic or vitalistic approaches to the understanding of Herbal Medicine found across the globe.

These traditional ‘energetic’ practices include those such as; TCM (Traditional Chinese medicine), Ayurvedic Medicine (India), Tibetan Medicine and Western Herbal Medicine.

As opposed to the more simple ‘actions’ of pharmaceuticals, herbs can affect multiple body systems. Herbs can also affect each person differently, this is often a reflection of our constitutional individuality.

Herbs can also have an amphoteric effect- meaning that they can have a balancing action i.e. a herb that will normalise both high or low levels in i.e. a hormonal condition.

The holistic approach to treating illness would be set out using herbal medicines and dietary and nutritional advice. The intention is to create a lasting resolution, that rebalances the body’s normal function.

Herbal medicines can be used to treat a wide range of conditions, from the acute or chronic, simple or serious, and of mind, body and spirit.

With care it can also be used safely along side orthodox medications and treatments. Very few side effects are reported for the proper use of Herbal Medicine. In fact sometimes they are utilized as complementary to pharmaceuticals to lessen their side effects.

Illness happens when we are out of balance and our work as herbalists is to facilitate the understanding of this imbalance with an aim to create a lasting resolution, that puts the individual back in charge of their health.

• Bartrams Encyclopaedia of Herbal Medicine – Thomas Bertram
• The Essential Book of Herbal Medicine – Simon Mills
• Herbal Remedies – Christopher Hedley and Non Shaw
• The Handmade Apothecary – Vicky Chown and Kim Walker
• Hedgerow Medicine – Julie Barlett-Bruton and Matthew Seal

The winter months often present a challenge for our respiratory health, whether there’s a pandemic happening or not. Viral illnesses such as colds and flu, as well as their accompanying bacterial infections, can cause blocked noses, chest infections and difficulty breathing. All this can make these darker, chillier months even less pleasant to bear than usual!

What’s to blame?

Whilst colder temperatures are not the sole cause of our common winter illnesses, they can play a contributing role.

However, in the northern hemisphere, it’s generally accepted by health professionals that the lack of sunlight we experience during winter, and the subsequent reduction in Vitamin D that this can cause, is a primary cause.

Lack of Vitamin D can significantly reduce our body’s immunity, and therefore our resistance to diseases (1).  Couple this with more time spent indoors and colder, drier air which might make it easier for viruses to survive, and there you have it – the perfect cocktail of conditions for the transmission of coughs, colds and flu, and their associated pathogens (2).

Whilst we can’t avoid acute respiratory illnesses such as colds and flu 100% of the time, there are actions we can take to make sure that we’re best placed to fight off the germs come winter and prevent longer-term, chronic respiratory conditions. The American Lung Association (27) and Harvard Health (28) recommend these tips for optimum lung health:

• Don’t smoke: Avoiding smoking helps us minimise the risk of developing chronic lung conditions such as COPD,  and also helps us protect against the risk of developing chronic inflammation which can lead to chronic bronchitis.
• Where possible, avoid exposure to pollutants, indoors and out. Pollutants can damage lung tissue and make us more vulnerable to disease.
• Take steps to prevent infection: The COVID-19 pandemic has taught most of us the importance of protecting ourselves and others from infection. Simple things like ventilating indoor spaces, regular hand-washing with soap and water, or using a 70% alcohol-based sanitiser, are excellent ways to prevent infection.
• Regular exercise: This helps keep our lungs healthy and can strengthen our immune system, too.
• Get some sleep: Those who sleep less than 7hrs per night are up to three times more likely to become infected with rhinovirus (the common cold)! (29) So make sure you’re getting enough and your chances of becoming infected will be significantly reduced.

Unfortunately, even the best prevention strategies aren’t always fool-proof at preventing infection. Stress, lack of sleep, and coming into contact with others who might be infected aren’t always avoidable. Whilst there are plenty of over-the-counter pharmaceuticals to choose from, it’s clear that Aromatherapy has a large part to play in supporting our respiratory health.

Essential oils, when applied topically via lotions, ointments or balms, enter the body via the skin, then the bloodstream. They also reach the brain indirectly, via the olfactory system. The respiratory system, in contrast, is directly influenced by essential oils.

The volatile nature of the aromatic phytocompounds found in essential oils means that they are easily inhaled, and can reach both the upper and lower respiratory tracts, which means that aromatherapy by inhalation has a particularly powerful effect on the respiratory system. It is one of the safest and most effective ways to use essential oils for respiratory health (3).

Aromatherapists use a wide range of tools, oils and treatments to help support their clients with respiratory health over the winter, but firstly it helps to understand a little more about some common respiratory illnesses so that we can make sure to choose the most appropriate and effective treatment for the condition in question. Whilst there are a whole host of respiratory pathogens to explore, these acute conditions are typically the most common in winter in the northern hemisphere.

The common cold

An infection of the nose, throat and sometimes ears, this viral upper respiratory tract infection is probably familiar to most of us. Symptoms can include sneezing, coughing, a runny nose, sore throat, body aches, and fatigue (4). Recovery time can range from a few days to more than a week, and whilst there isn’t a cure for a cold, there are several aromatherapeutic interventions that we can use to ease symptoms and alleviate discomfort and pain.

Influenza (flu)

Another virus which most of us will be familiar with. Like the common cold, this virus infects the ears, nose and throat, but also the mouth and lungs – so affects the lower respiratory tract, too. Symptoms can be much more severe and can last for several weeks. Body aches, a fever, headaches, sore throat, a cough and even vomiting or diarrhoea can accompany flu (5).

Bronchitis

A potentially severe bacterial infection, often triggered by cold or flu viruses. Smokers and those with sinusitis, allergies, enlarged tonsils or adenoids are particularly prone to bronchitis. The main symptom is an ongoing cough, which is often mucous-producing. Sufferers may also experience body aches, a headache, shortness of breath and wheezing (6).

Before approaching treatment, it’s important to consider that each essential oil is made up of hundreds of different phytochemicals, all with different effects on the body (7). Whilst some aromatherapists may group these compounds into broad chemical groups with different properties and benefits in each, it is generally considered best practice not to apply a “one size fit all” approach when considering an essential oil’s uses, or treating an individual.

After all, as in many schools of herbal medicine, the aim is to treat the whole person, and not just the symptoms. Depending on the unique circumstances surrounding the illness, along with other lifestyle factors and tendencies unique to the person, the treatment, and oils used, will change.

Equally, considering an essential oil holistically, instead of reducing it to its individual compounds, is recommended. It’s worth noting that some essential oils work synergistically together (8), with altogether more powerful effects on the body, and therefore we should consider choosing oils in combination with each other for maximum benefit.

Physical actions

A single essential oil can have a wide range of properties and actions, depending on the balance of its numerous active compounds. Depending on the condition, it may be helpful to choose oils that have a combination of the following actions on the body and mind, so they can work synergistically to address common winter illnesses. Most of the oils detailed below are recommended for inhalation blends, though where topical application is recommended, this is noted.

Antispasmodics, antitussives

Essential oils with antispasmodic or antitussive actions will help to address muscle spasms, for example, those resulting from persistent coughs, and may help to reduce symptoms. Peppermint (Mentha piperita) essential oil, for example, has been shown to have antispasmodic actions in the trachea of rats. (9)

Safety note: Respiratory use of peppermint essential oil should be avoided with babies or children and those with cardiac fibrillation, as its high menthol content could cause a drop in the respiratory rate or an increase in heart rate. As an oil it is very stimulating, so should be used in weak dilutions in adults (~1-2% max). Other antispasmodic oils include Clary sage (Salvia sclarea), Marjoram (Origanum marjorana) and Frankincense (Boswellia carterii). Antitussives include Peppermint (Mentha piperita), and Cypress (Cupressus sempervirens) (10,11).

Antibacterial

Inhaling oils that are antibacterial can support recovery from bacterial infection, such as bronchitis. Antibacterial oils include Peppermint (Mentha piperita) (see safety note above), Thyme (Thymus vulgaris), Pine (Pinus sylvestris) (12,13).

Antiviral

Antiviral oils, when inhaled, can help protect against and aid recovery from some viral infections. Powerful antiviral essential oils include Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulous), Ginger (Zingiber officinalis) and Black Pepper (Piper nigrum) (14,15).

Anti-inflammatory

Herbs that are anti-inflammatory in nature can help to calm swelling and redness, for example, in the case of a sore throat caused by infection or repeated coughing. Anti-inflammatory herbs include Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) and Chamomile (Matricaria recutita). Whilst ingesting essential oils is not advised, taking an anti-inflammatory, aromatic herbal tea blend (if safe to do so) can be a brilliant way to support an aromatherapeutic inhalation treatment that focuses on other symptoms. 

Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) and Chamomile (Matricaria recutita) are both excellent anti-inflammatory herbs that make great infusions and may be accompanied with a demulcent (soothes mucous membranes) herb such as Marshmallow root (Malva sylvestris) to help relieve a sore or irritated throat (16).

Decongestant, expectorant and mucolytic

Using expectorant (expels mucous), decongestant (clears airways) and mucolytic (breaks down mucous) essential oils in an inhalation blend can be an effective way to break down and expel excess mucous and relieve blocked noses and chesty coughs. Oils with these properties include rosemary (Salvia rosmarinus) and Spanish marjoram (Thymus mastichina).

Safety note: Rosemary should be avoided with babies and children due to the risk of sleep apnea (19,20).

Febrifuge

Oils that can help to bring down a high temperature with their ‘cooling’ and anti-inflammatory actions are known as febrifuge and include Palmarosa (Cymbopogon martinii), a sweet, rosy-lemon scented oil, peppermint (Mentha piperita), and chamomile (Matricaria recutita).

These oils can be included in a weak, topical blend with an appropriate carrier oil, such as sweet almond (Prunus dulcis) and applied via a cool, damp flannel or via an ointment to the chest and neck area, and the forehead (steer clear of the eye area if using peppermint, and make sure the dilution is -1%). You can ask your aromatherapist to make an ointment, cream or lotion for you (21,22).

Analgesic

Headaches, as well as body aches and pains, can really add salt to the wound when a cold or the ‘flu takes hold. Oils which are pain-relieving such as Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) and Peppermint (Mentha piperita) are particularly useful for relieving pain when applied via an ointment or oil blend to the forehead or body at a safe dilution (23,24).

Emotional actions

It can be really helpful to bolster the oils used for treating the various physical symptoms listed above with those that work on the nervous system, and provide soothing, clarifying or uplifting effects. Most of us will have experienced a dip in mood or foggy-headedness which can often accompany a nasty cold or virus, and so treating these emotional symptoms alongside the physical ones is key to aiding recovery.

Sedative, nervine

It can often be helpful to include a nervine (calming) oil in a respiratory blend, or even better, make up a separate blend for bedtime which contains oils that are less stimulating than many of those mentioned above. Chamomile (Matricaria recutita), Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) and Frankincense (Boswellia carterii) are all soothing in their actions and will help promote calm and a restful night’s sleep. Lavender in particular is sedative, so will encourage sleep. Chamomile is often recommended for insomnia and stress, and Frankincense is used for anxiety and depression, so these would also be lovely additions to a pre-sleep blend (25).

Clarifying, uplifting

In the morning, another approach is needed. Poor sleep, a stuffy nose and a headache can all lead to a feeling of “fuzziness” and a lack of clarity of thought. Therefore, oils such as pine (Pinus sylvestris), lemon (Citrus limonum), and bergamot (Citrus bergamia) are recommended in the morning. Their ability to clarify the mind and uplift the spirits make them ideal for feeling fresh and clear-headed (26).

You’ll notice that some of the oils above appear multiple times; this is because they have a whole host of actions on the body and mind. Some of the most accessible and multi-functional oils have been included, but it’s always wise to do your own research and experiment (safely) with blending oils in a way that works for you. To help you get started, below are some suggested blends for two common winter bugs.

Please note that these blends are suggestions for adults who are otherwise in good health; please consult a professional aromatherapist before using essential oils to make sure it is safe for you to do so.

Cold & chesty cough blend (daytime)

For inhalation in a room diffuser, or steam inhalation via a bowl of steaming hot water with a towel covering the head and bowl

Ingredients

• 3 x drops rosemary essential oil (Salvia rosmarinus)
• 3 x drops eucalyptus essential oil (Eucalyptus globulous)
• 3 x drops pine essential oil (Pinus sylvestris)

How to make a chesty cough essential oil

• Set a room diffuser for 30mins (don’t inhale directly), or inhale steam for 5-10mins via the steam-bowl method detailed above, taking regular breaks.
• This is a great blend to inhale throughout the day to aid with symptoms of the common cold such as a blocked nose, chesty cough or foggy head.

Flu and fever blend (evening)

This blend is for a massage oil.

Ingredients

• 20 ml sweet almond oil (Prunus dulcis) or other suitable carrier oil.*
• 2 x drops chamomile essential oil (Matricaria recutita)
• 2 x drops palmarosa essential oil (Cymbopogon martinii)
• 2 x drops lavender essential oil (Lavandula angustifolia)

*Check allergies to nuts or seeds before choosing a carrier oil.

How to make a flu and fever essential oil

• Blend the essential oils into the carrier and stir for 30sec. Massage gently into the chest and neck area 30mins before sleep.
• This analgesic (pain-relieving) febrifugal, cooling and calming blend makes a lovely massage oil. The massage itself will have additional soothing effects on the nervous system, and the oils will work synergistically to cool and calm the fever.

There are endless combinations of essential oils to choose from, but we hope that the guide and resources here will provide a foundation that will support you in deciding which oils, blends and methods of application will best support you with your respiratory health over the winter.

NB: You should always consult a qualified Aromatherapist/ herbalist before applying any essential oil to the skin and always dilute to the appropriate ratio before application. Never ingest essential oils, unless under the guidance of a qualified, licensed Medical Aromatherapist or Medical Herbalist.

1. Unknown. The Reason for the Season: why flu strikes in winter. Science in the News. Published 2021. [online] Accessed: 26 November 2021. Available from: https://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2014/the-reason-for-the-season-why-flu-strikes-in-winter/
2. Smith H, Sweet C. Cooperation between Viral and Bacterial Pathogens in Causing Human Respiratory Disease. In: Brogden KA, Guthmiller JM, editors. Polymicrobial Diseases. Washington (DC): ASM Press. Published 2002. Chapter 11. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2479/
3. Martin, I. Aromatherapy For Massage Practitioners. (1st ed.). Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2007. p265.
4. Albert M, Dy N, M.D. Feeser S, Winter Illness Guide. , at Johns Hopkins Community Physicians, Johns Hopkins Medicine. Published 2021. [online] Accessed 26 November 2021. Available from: https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/winter-illness-guide
5. Albert M, Dy N, M.D. Feeser S, Winter Illness Guide. , at Johns Hopkins Community Physicians, Johns Hopkins Medicine. Published 2021. [online] Accessed 26 November 2021. Available from: https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/winter-illness-guide
6. Albert M, Dy N, M.D. Feeser S, Winter Illness Guide. , at Johns Hopkins Community Physicians, Johns Hopkins Medicine. Published 2021. [online] Accessed 26 November 2021. Available from: https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/winter-illness-guide
7. Caddy, R. Essential oils in colour (2nd ed.). Amberwood Publishing. 1997.
8. Shute, J. Synergism in essential oils and aromatherapy. Published 2021. Accessed 26 November 2021. Available from: https://aromaticstudies.com/synergism-in-essential-oils-and-aromatherapy/
9. Peppermint (Mentha Xpiperita). Taylor & Francis. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/J157v07n02_07?journalCode=iher20. Published 2009. Accessed December 10, 2021.
10. Caddy, R. Essential oils in colour (2nd ed.). Amberwood Publishing. 1997.
11. Martin, I. Aromatherapy For Massage Practitioners. (1st ed.). Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2007. P267.
12. Caddy, R. Essential oils in colour (2nd ed.). Amberwood Publishing. 1997.
13. Martin, I. Aromatherapy For Massage Practitioners. (1st ed.). Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2007. p267.
14. Caddy, R. Essential oils in colour (2nd ed.). Amberwood Publishing. 1997.
15. Martin, I. Aromatherapy For Massage Practitioners. (1st ed.). Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2007. p.267.
16. Hoffmann, D. The holistic herbal (3rd ed.). Thorsons, Harper Collins Publishers. 2002. p.37.
17. Caddy, R. Essential oils in colour (2nd ed.). Amberwood Publishing. 1997.
18. Martin, I. Aromatherapy For Massage Practitioners. (1st ed.). Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2007. p.267.
19. Caddy, R. Essential oils in colour (2nd ed.). Amberwood Publishing. 1997.
20. Martin, I. Aromatherapy For Massage Practitioners. (1st ed.). Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2007. P.267.
21. Caddy, R. Essential oils in colour (2nd ed.). Amberwood Publishing. 1997.
22. Martin, I. Aromatherapy For Massage Practitioners. (1st ed.). Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2007. P.267.
23. Caddy, R. Essential oils in colour (2nd ed.). Amberwood Publishing. 1997.
24. Martin, I. Aromatherapy For Massage Practitioners. (1st ed.). Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2007. p.267.
25. Mojay, G. Aromatherapy for healing the spirit. London: Gaia. 2005. pp. 60, 74, 90.
26. Mojay, G. Aromatherapy for healing the spirit. London: Gaia. 2005. Pp. 52, 92, 110.
27. Unknown. Tips to Keep Your Lungs Healthy. Updated 6 October 2021. Accessed 29 November 2021. Available from: https://www.lung.org/lung-health-diseases/wellness/protecting-your-lungs
28. Unknown. How to boost your immune system – Harvard Health. Published 2021. Accessed 29 November 2021. Available from: https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/how-to-boost-your-immune-system
29. 29. Walker, M. How sleep can improve your immunity. Published August 2020. Accessed 29 November 2021. Available from: https://www.ted.com/talks/matt_walker_how_sleep_can_improve_your_immunity?language=en

• Albert M, Dy N, M.D. Feeser S, Winter Illness Guide. , at Johns Hopkins Community Physicians, Johns Hopkins Medicine. Published 2021. [online] Accessed 26 November 2021. Available from: https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/winter-illness-guide
• Caddy, R. Essential oils in colour (2nd ed.). Amberwood Publishing. 1997.
• de Sousa, A., Soares, P., de Almeida, A. et al. Antispasmodic effect of Mentha piperita essential oil on tracheal smooth muscle of rats. Published 2010. Journal Of Ethnopharmacology. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2010.05.012. Accessed 29 Novembe 2021. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378874110003181
• Hoffmann, D. The holistic herbal (3rd ed.). Thorsons, Harper Collins Publishers. 2002
• Martin, I. Aromatherapy For Massage Practitioners. (1st ed.). Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2007
• Mojay, G. Aromatherapy for healing the spirit. London: Gaia. 2005
• Shute, J. Synergism in essential oils and aromatherapy. Published 2021. Accessed 26 November 2021. Available from: https://aromaticstudies.com/synergism-in-essential-oils-and-aromatherapy/
• Smith H, Sweet C. Cooperation between Viral and Bacterial Pathogens in Causing Human Respiratory Disease. In: Brogden KA, Guthmiller JM, editors. Polymicrobial Diseases. Washington (DC): ASM Press. Published 2002. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2479/
• Unknown. How to boost your immune system – Harvard Health. Published 2021. Accessed 29 November 2021. Available from: https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/how-to-boost-your-immune-system
• Unknown. The Reason for the Season: why flu strikes in winter. Science in the News. Published 2021. [online] Accessed: 26 November 2021. Available from: https://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2014/the-reason-for-the-season-why-flu-strikes-in-winter/
• Unknown. Tips to Keep Your Lungs Healthy. Updated 6 October 2021. Accessed 29 November 2021. Available from: https://www.lung.org/lung-health-diseases/wellness/protecting-your-lungs
• Walker, M. How sleep can improve your immunity. Published August 2020. Accessed 29 November 2021. Available from: https://www.ted.com/talks/matt_walker_how_sleep_can_improve_your_immunity?language=en

What is inflammation, and should I worry about it?

Inflammation has received a significant amount of negative press in recent years, with numerous scientific studies citing it as the biggest health threat facing humans (1) and as the “most significant cause of death in the world today” (2). But science also teaches us that inflammation is the body’s normal immune response to trauma(3,4)infection or injury, and a helpful ally in the fight against infection and disease. So which is it, friend or foe?

Acute or chronic?

The answer may not be so straightforward as we first hoped, but thankfully research that can clarify the muddied waters of inflammation and health does exist. Key to determining whether inflammation may be harmful or helpful to us is understanding the difference between acute and chronic inflammation. Acute inflammation is a natural bodily immune response to invading pathogens, injury or disease.

There are a number of visual clues (known as the five ‘cardinal signs’ in ancient times (5)) which can help us detect whether the inflammatory process is happening in our bodies. These signs, which were coined by the ancient Romans and Greeks, are redness, swelling, heat, pain and loss of function (6).

Most of us will be familiar with these signs – on cutting a knee, twisting an ankle or even breaking a bone, within minutes, our body – when functioning correctly – triggers them by sending blood to the injured site along with numerous cells such as macrophages which repair and protect the damaged tissue (7), and others which fight off disease, like neutrophils (8).

When inflammation gets out of hand

But what happens when inflammation becomes chronic? Recent research has shown that there are a number of environmental, social and lifestyle factors that can actually increase the likelihood of developing systemic chronic inflammation (SCI) (9).

Whilst inflammation in and of itself does not necessarily pose a problem, when ongoing, it can lead to a number of diseases that “collectively represent the leading causes of disability and mortality worldwide” (10).These diseases include type 2 diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular disease, different types of cancer, neurodegenerative and autoimmune diseases, osteoporosis and even mental health conditions like depression (11).

The wider factors at play

Chronic inflammation has a number of possible causes, including immune disorders, ongoing infection, auto-inflammatory disorders caused by cell defects and exposure to irritants, to name a few (12). However, our modern, urban environments, sedentary lifestyles, nutrient-poor diets and increasing lack of physical activity can all play a role in contributing to chronic inflammation (13) and sending the body’s immune response into overdrive, which in turn may create a “chicken-and-egg” (13) cycle of inflammation-disease-inflammation.

What can we do about inflammation?

But whilst the long lists of risk factors and diseases can seem extensive and scary, there are a number of lifestyle changes we can make as individuals which can help to reduce the likelihood of developing chronic inflammation and its associated conditions. Where appropriate, making some changes to our diet, such as eating more nutrient-dense foods, increasing physical activity (within our ability), avoiding chemical irritants and environmental pollutants and maintaining good sleep hygiene can all help to prevent inflammation (14,15).

However, it bears acknowledging that some communities and individuals are much better equipped to tackle public health issues such as SCI than others. Health (in)equity is an urgent worldwide concern, and social factors such as economic status have proven to have a significant influence on variations in population health and mortality rates (16).

Aromatic approaches to treating inflammation

Whilst it cannot legitimately be suggested that aromatherapy alone can cure diseases associated with chronic inflammation, it’s clear that herbal and holistic health disciplines such as aromatherapy have a key role to play in supporting us on an individual level with both chronic and acute inflammation and ultimately increasing quality of life. Increasing quality of life is something we believe should be at the forefront of healthcare priorities.

Let’s take Osteoarthritis (OA) and Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) as examples. Whilst RA is an auto-immune disease, and OA is a degenerative joint disease (17), it’s thought that it is possible for both to be hereditary, too (18,19). This would suggest that sufferers might be in a position where they are managing the effects of inflammation, rather than eliminating it completely. You can read about arthritis and herbalism here, as well as the Ayurvedic perspective.

Indeed it may not be possible, or desirable, for everyone suffering from forms of Arthritis to eliminate the symptoms; constantly striving to do so may cause emotional distress. It is in the short-term ‘flare-up’ treatment (acute) and the management of ongoing (chronic) conditions that aromatherapy can play a part. There are a number of essential and carrier (base) oils that can be used in topical and inhalation blends to treat both forms of Arthritis as well as numerous other inflammatory conditions.

Treating acute flare-ups vs. chronic inflammation

During Rheumatoid arthritic flare-ups, for example,  joints can become tender, swollen, and even deviate, becoming deformed (20). These symptoms can appear suddenly, causing intense pain and heat in the joint. In Osteoarthritis, inflammation tends to appear in the later stages of the disease (21), and as such, the Aromatherapist’s focus will tend to be on pain management and joint mobility.

Which method should I choose?

Aromatherapists work with many methods of application in their practice. Typically, preparations can range from inhalers to oil blends, creams to balms, aromatic soaks to sprays. It’s important to choose the most appropriate method of application to ensure the treatment is targeted to the condition, pleasant and easy to use since this will ensure effective outcomes for the patient or client.

In both cases of Arthritis mentioned above, a Clinical Aromatherapist would likely decide to prepare a product for the client to use topically (on the joint itself) such as a balm, cream or ointment made from a mixture of essential and base oils. This method of application allows the active constituents in the oils to permeate the skin barrier and target the affected site quickly, whilst providing some immediate relief (for more acute conditions) through the gentle application of a soothing ointment.

An ointment is an excellent choice in this case for practical reasons, too – it’s easy to apply morning and night, and can be carried in a bag or pocket when the patient is out and about. For other inflammatory conditions such as coughs and colds, another method such as inhalation might be more suitable.

Essential oils for inflammation

There are several oils that can be a useful addition to any budding aromatherapist’s natural first-aid kit. For acute inflammatory blends, specific oils indicated include those which are strongly analgesic (pain-relieving) and anti-inflammatory. German chamomile (Matricaria recutita), lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) and turmeric (Curcuma longa) all have strong anti-inflammatory properties (23) and can be useful additions to ointments targeting acute inflammation.

For more chronic conditions, either pain-relieving (analgesic) ‘cooling’ oils such as peppermint (Mentha piperita), or indeed ‘warming’ oils like ginger (Zingiber officinalis) and Black Pepper (Piper nigrum) can also be combined in a blend to provide relief.

Carrier oils: Therapeutic in their own right

Base oils (carrier oils) are also important additions since they both serve to dilute and blend the essential oils safely, whilst having therapeutic properties of their own. They can also aid absorption of the essential oils, which are the primary active ingredient in the product.

Carriers such as almond (Prunus amygdalis), apricot (Prunus armeniaca) and jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis) oil are particularly useful here. Almond oil is slow-absorbing, allowing for application of the ointment over a long period of time, which is ideal for chronic conditions. Apricot, on the other hand, is light and easily-absorbed, so ideal for fast-acting ointments. Jojoba, which is actually a wax, mimics the chemical structure of skin’s sebum, so is easily tolerated and helps balance the skin’s moisture levels (23). 

Carrier oils infused with a herb (macerations) are also extremely useful additions, adding another layer of therapeutic intervention to products. Particularly indicated for topical application for inflammatory conditions is St John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum) infused oil, which has a beautiful deep-red colour.

Blending for synergy: Working holistically

Aside from targeting solely the physical symptoms which are presenting, the Aromatherapist may also consider including an oil in an anti-inflammatory blend that assists with any emotional aspects of suffering with inflammatory conditions. Both sweet orange (Citrus aurantium var. dulcis) and cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) are good anti-depressive oils, for example, and can help to uplift the spirits of the patient or client if they are suffering from stress or low mood as a result of their physical condition.

This synergistic approach to treatment is one that all good Aromatherapists will take, since aromatherapy, like herbalism, tends to focus on the person and their unique situation first and foremost, and not on the presenting symptoms alone.

Ultimately, if we try to look at inflammation not as a villain or harbinger of bad news and disease, but as a messenger with something important to tell us, our fear of inflammation may subside. Usually, inflammation is a sign that our body is doing its job to protect us from disease, and knowing this, we can perhaps begin to tune in to its signals and warning signs.

We might decide to make changes to our lifestyle that support us with our long-term health, preventing inflammation from becoming chronic and problematic, whilst enlisting our herbal and aromatic allies to address and calm acute and chronic conditions as and when they arise.

Please note: You should always consult a qualified Aromatherapist before applying any essential oil to the skin and always dilute to the appropriate ratio before application. Never ingest essential oils, unless under the guidance of a qualified, licensed Medical Aromatherapist or Medical Herbalist.

1. Pahwa R, Goyal A, Bansal P, et al. Chronic Inflammation. [Updated 2021 Sep 28]. In: StatPearls [online]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2021 Jan. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK493173/
2. Furman D, Campisi J, Verdin E et al. Chronic inflammation in the etiology of disease across the life span. Nat Med. 2019;25(12):1822-1832. doi:10.1038/s41591-019-0675-0. Available from: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41591-019-0675-0
3. Oxford University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust. Inflammatory diseases. [online]. https://www.ouh.nhs.uk/oxparc/information/diagnoses/inflammatory-diseases.aspx. Published 2021. Accessed October 21, 2021.
4. Fighting Inflammation. Harvard Health. [online]. https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/understanding-inflammation. Published 2021. Accessed October 21, 2021.
5. Punchard N, Whelan C, Adcock I. J Inflamm. 2004;1(1):1. doi:10.1186/1476-9255-1-1 Available from: https://journal-inflammation.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1476-9255-1-1
6. Punchard N, Whelan C, Adcock I. J Inflamm. 2004;1(1):1. doi:10.1186/1476-9255-1-1 Available from: https://journal-inflammation.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1476-9255-1-1
7. Actor J. K, 2 – Cells and Organs of the Immune System, Editor(s): Actor, J.K. Elsevier’s Integrated Review Immunology and Microbiology (Second Edition), W.B. Saunders, 2012, Pages 7-16. ISBN 9780323074476, doi: 10.1016/B978-0-323-07447-6.00002-8 Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780323074476000028
8. Ali O. A, Mooney D. J. 31 – Converging Cell Therapy with Biomaterials, Editor(s): Craig Halberstadt, Dwaine Emerich. Cellular Transplantation, Academic Press, 2007. ISBN 9780123694157, doi: 10.1016/B978-012369415-7/50032-6. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123694157500326?via%3Dihub
9. Furman D, Campisi J, Verdin E et al. Chronic inflammation in the etiology of disease across the life span. Nat Med. 2019;25(12):1822-1832. doi:10.1038/s41591-019-0675-0. Available from: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41591-019-0675-0
10. Furman D, Campisi J, Verdin E et al. Chronic inflammation in the etiology of disease across the life span. Nat Med. 2019;25(12):1822-1832. doi:10.1038/s41591-019-0675-0. Available from: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41591-019-0675-0
11. Furman D, Campisi J, Verdin E et al. Chronic inflammation in the etiology of disease across the life span. Nat Med. 2019;25(12):1822-1832. doi:10.1038/s41591-019-0675-0. Available from: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41591-019-0675-0
12. Pahwa R, Goyal A, Bansal P, et al. Chronic Inflammation. [Updated 2021 Sep 28]. In: StatPearls [online]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2021 Jan. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK493173/
13. Unknown. Understanding acute and chronic inflammation. Harvard Health. [online] https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/understanding-acute-and-chronic-inflammation. Published 2020. Accessed October 21, 2021.
14. Unknown. Understanding acute and chronic inflammation. Harvard Health. [online] https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/understanding-acute-and-chronic-inflammation. Published 2020. Accessed October 21, 2021.
15. Furman D, Campisi J, Verdin E et al. Chronic inflammation in the etiology of disease across the life span. Nat Med. 2019;25(12):1822-1832. doi:10.1038/s41591-019-0675-0. Available from: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41591-019-0675-0
16. Mackenbach J, Kunst A. Measuring the magnitude of socio-economic inequalities in health: An overview of available measures illustrated with two examples from Europe. Soc Sci Med. 1997;44(6):757-771. doi:10.1016/s0277-9536(96)00073-1. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9080560/
17. Martin, I. Aromatherapy For Massage Practitioners. 1st ed. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2007:212-213.
18. Chen D, Shen J, Zhao W et al. Osteoarthritis: toward a comprehensive understanding of pathological mechanism. Bone Res. 2017;5(1). doi:10.1038/boneres.2016.44 Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5240031/
19. Bullock J, Rizvi S, Saleh A et al. Rheumatoid Arthritis: A Brief Overview of the Treatment. Medical Principles and Practice. 2018;27(6):501-507. doi:10.1159/000493390 Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6422329/
20. Martin, I. Aromatherapy For Massage Practitioners. 1st ed. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2007: 211-213.
21. Martin, I. Aromatherapy For Massage Practitioners. 1st ed. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2007: 211-213.
22. Martin, I. Aromatherapy For Massage Practitioners. 1st ed. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2007: 211-213.
23. Martin, I. Aromatherapy For Massage Practitioners. 1st ed. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2007: 150-157
24. Wölfle U, Seelinger G, Schempp C. Topical Application of St. Johnʼs Wort (Hypericum perforatum). Planta Med. 2013;80(02/03):109-120. doi:10.1055/s-0033-1351019 Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24214835/

• Actor J. K, 2 – Cells and Organs of the Immune System, Editor(s): Actor, J.K. Elsevier’s Integrated Review Immunology and Microbiology (Second Edition), W.B. Saunders, 2012, ISBN 9780323074476, doi: 10.1016/B978-0-323-07447-6.00002-8 Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780323074476000028
• Ali O. A, Mooney D. J. 31 – Converging Cell Therapy with Biomaterials, Editor(s): Craig Halberstadt, Dwaine Emerich. Cellular Transplantation, Academic Press, 2007, ISBN 9780123694157, doi: 10.1016/B978-012369415-7/50032-6. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123694157500326?via%3Dihub
• Bullock J, Rizvi S, Saleh A et al. Rheumatoid Arthritis: A Brief Overview of the Treatment. Medical Principles and Practice. 2018. doi:10.1159/000493390 Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6422329/
• Chen D, Shen J, Zhao W et al. Osteoarthritis: toward a comprehensive understanding of pathological mechanism. Bone Res. 2017. doi:10.1038/boneres.2016.44 Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5240031/
• Furman D, Campisi J, Verdin E et al. Chronic inflammation in the etiology of disease across the life span. Nat Med. 2019 doi:10.1038/s41591-019-0675-0. Available from: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41591-019-0675-0
• Mackenbach J, Kunst A. Measuring the magnitude of socio-economic inequalities in health: An overview of available measures illustrated with two examples from Europe. Soc Sci Med. 1997. doi:10.1016/s0277-9536(96)00073-1. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9080560/
• Martin, I. Aromatherapy For Massage Practitioners. 1st ed. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2007. ISBN: 0-7817-5345-7
• Oxford University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust. Inflammatory diseases. OUH, NHS, Oxparc. https://www.ouh.nhs.uk/oxparc/information/diagnoses/inflammatory-diseases.aspx. Published 2021. Accessed October 21, 2021.
• Pahwa R, Goyal A, Bansal P, et al. Chronic Inflammation. [online] [Updated 2021 Sep 28]. In: StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2021 Jan. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK493173/
• Punchard N, Whelan C, Adcock I. J Inflamm. 2004;1(1):1. doi:10.1186/1476-9255-1-1 Available from: https://journal-inflammation.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1476-9255-1-1
• Unknown. Fighting Inflammation. Harvard Health. [online]. https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/understanding-inflammation. Published 2021. Accessed October 21, 2021.
• Unknown. Understanding acute and chronic inflammation. Harvard Health. [online]. https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/understanding-acute-and-chronic-inflammation. Published 2020. Accessed October 21, 2021.
• Wölfle U, Seelinger G, Schempp C. Topical Application of St. Johnʼs Wort (Hypericum perforatum). Planta Med. 2013.  doi:10.1055/s-0033-1351019 Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24214835/

Doses for sweet

• Low: Restores homeostasis
• Medium: Nourishes vata nervous system, has a mild laxative action and cools pitta via its anti-inflammatory effect
• High: Calms the CNS, alleviates vata and relieves pain whilst also aggravating kapha

Doses for sour

• Low: Stimulates the appetite but may aggravate pitta acidity
• Medium: Moistens dryness and benefits undernourished vata but aggravates pitta inflammatory tendency
• High: Contracts the organs

Doses for salty

• Low: Stimulates digestion and can aggravate pitta acidity
• Medium: Moistens dryness but can aggravate kapha tendency to fluid retention and is a mild laxative thus benefiting vata‘s tendency to dryness and constipation
• High: Breaks accumulations, can cause vomiting and diarrhoea and aggravates all three doshas

Doses for pungent

• Low: Stimulates digestion and increases digestive fire agni
• Medium: Stimulates circulation, penetrates the tissues and can aggravate pitta acidity
• High: Causes sweating, dries sticky ama and dries fluids, therefore aggravating vata and pitta

Doses for bitter

• Low: Stimulates digestion, clears stagnant kapha and awakens the nervous system
• Medium: Detoxifies the liver and blood
• High: Drains downwards through the bowel and bladder, cools the system, clears pitta, slows digestion and aggravates sensitive vata

Doses for astringent

• Low: Cleans the mucus membranes and clears kapha and pitta
• Medium: Holds tissues and organs in place
• High: Binds and constricts the movement of blood, liquids and prana in the channels, thus aggravating vata

Adults (12-60 years old)

Medicinal tea hot infusion (Phantha): 30-60ml of a 1:8 infusion 3 x daily. This means 5g of herbs in 40ml hot water infused with a lid on for an hour. Another method is a 1:16 ratio; soak 30g dried herbs in 500ml freshly boiled water and leave to infuse for 4+ house. Very good for nutrient dense herbs such as Nettles, Red clover, Clovers etc. For a regular cup of supportive herbal tea the ratio is 1:100 (2g in 200ml).

Medicinal tea cold infusion (Hima): 30-60ml of a 1:6 infusion 3 x daily. This is useful for mucilagenous plants such as marshmallow root and some aromatics.

Medicinal tea hot decoction (Kvatha): 30ml of a 1:16 reduced to 4 parts 3x daily. This method is best for roots, resins – and generally ta good way to take herbs. Main method used in Traditional Chinese Medicine and Ayurveda.

Pills / tablets / gugguls: 250-500mg 2-3 x/day

Tincture: Average dose of 1-15ml of a 1:5 ratio 3x/day or 1-9ml of a 1:3 ratio 3x/day. A good method to extract a broad range of the polar and non-polar compounds from flavonoids to volatile oils to fatty-resins. Most common method used by Western herbalists and phytotherapists.

Children (5 – 12 years old)

There are some specific rules for determining dosages for children. Age is one consideration, weight is another, and physical constitution is another. Slight or frailer vata-like children require less. Heavy or robust more kapha-like children can use more. Use your intuition and their weight as guides. Dr. Clark’s Rule is very helpful:

To determine the appropriate fraction of an adult dose, divide the weight of the child in kilos by 75. Example: 25Kg child divided by 75 = 1/3. Therefore the child’s dose is 1/3 of the adult dosage.

Another method is Cowling’s dose: Divide the age at the next Birthday by 24 to determine the fraction of dose.

Rules of thumb doses for children:

• 12-year-olds get an adult dose
• 6-year-olds get ½ an adult dose
• 3-year-olds get a ¼ adult dose