Since ancient times, this resin has been valued for its medicinal properties, with the Sumerians using it for the treatment of tooth infection and intestinal worms as far back as 1100 BC (2). In the bible it is famously mentioned as one of the three gifts the wise men brought to the birth of Jesus.

In ancient Egypt, it was used as an ingredient in embalming fluid, in the Middle East its use included the treatment of wounds and to fight infections, and in Ayurvedic medicine, myrrh has long been used to treat problems such as gingivitis, mouth ulcers, and pharyngitis (3). Today, it is still commonly used as an analgesic, antiseptic, astringent, anthelmintic, carminative, emmenagogue, and as an expectorant (2).

Further to its value as medicine, myrhh has a long history of use as an incense and perfume. The world’s oldest perfume factory, dating back over 4,000 years to 1850 BCE, was discovered in Pyrgos-Mavroraki, Cyprus, by Italian archaeologists in 2003–2004. This massive Bronze Age industrial site featured dozens of stills, mixing bowls, and funnel bottles. Scents were created using various ingredients, including lavender, rosemary, pine, coriander, and myrrh. 

Today myrrh can be commonly found in incense, cosmetic products, perfumes, mouthwashes and toothpastes, soaps and shampoos, aromatherapy products and as a flavouring agent in beverages, candy, baked goods, chewing gum, gelatins, frozen desserts, puddings, soft drinks, and meat products all over the world (4). This shows that while perhaps myrrh is not seen in the same way as it was thousands of years ago, it is still a highly valued commodity. 

There are over 200 different species of myrrh, though Commiphora myrrha is the most commonly used species worldwide. Guggul (Commiphora wightii) is the more commonly used species of myrrh in the Ayurvedic tradition.

And Opoponax (Commiphora guidotti) is very commonly used in the perfume industry, and has a much sweeter aroma than C. myrrha. Balm of Gilead (Commiphora gileadensis) is, just like myrrh mentioned in the Bible, and has a history of use in Christian, Jewish and Muslim traditions where it was used as a medicine.

Most of the myrrh (C. myrrha) used today comes from the regions of Somalia and Ethiopia, with about 90% percent of the world’s myrrh supply coming from Somali trees (1).

Similar to frankincense, myrrh used to be harvested by semi-normadic pastoralist clans, who followed traditional rules around the harvest process, which would allow the continued co-existence with these trees. However, instability in recent Somali history, has increased levels of poverty, corruption and war, creating circumstances  in which unsustainable harvesting practices arise more readily and the continuity of traditional ecological knowledge is threatened (1).

Additionally, dryland areas in Kenya, Ethiopia and Somalia are experiencing increased overgrazing from livestock, leading to increased damage and subsequent deforestation in those areas. Overgrazing, harvest of firewood, deforestation, forest fires and climate change are currently the biggest threats to those ecosystems, advancing the process of desertification (5). 

In 2018, a gold rush emerged in parts of Somalia, leading to the uprooting of centuries-old trees in the search of gold. Some of the people digging had previously been part of semi-nomadic pastoralist communities, but because of ever-changing climate conditions, decided to give up their peripatetic lifestyles. Now, many live settled in the mountains, wishing they could return to their nomadic lives. The gold rush also brought more violence to the region, increasing instability, as competition over access to newly discovered resources intensified(6). 

Yet, some nearby communities still exist in close harmony with these trees, maintaining systems of stewardship in which knowledge of sustainable harvest practices is passed down through generations (6). Usually these people live in remote areas, and are not well connected to other villages or the outside world. As such, the resin is sold on to middlemen who hold a lot of power in terms of the price for the resin. All of which, gives little power and resource to wild harvesters themselves. Tappers and graders tend to see a fraction of the price on the market, with $10 /kg.

Approximately 30% of the price margin goes to the people tapping, the other approximately 70% to the urban merchants, selling on the resin (7). Additionally, it is estimated that 60% of the myrrh sold goes through illegal channels (7). The often opaque and complex nature of global supply chains, combined with the remote locations where myrrh trees grow and the resin harvested, makes transparency very difficult to achieve.

Myrrh resin, as well as other tree resins and gums, also represents an increasingly important source of income for these local communities, supporting livelihood diversification and risk management strategies (7). In response to these challenges, several companies and organisations that have committed themselves to more equitable practices and have obtained FairWild certification for their myrrh resins. 

FairWild is a certification body, which combines social and ecological factors and specialises in certifying wild-harvested products — a market with very difficult parameters, as every plant and every ecosystem brings its own requirements, which need to be taken into account when assessing the sustainability of its trade. One company that has gained the FairWild certification for their resins is IHSAN Resins Society Limited.

Made up of farmers, farm laborers unions and local traders of gums and resins harvested from the Horn of Africa region, this society brings together farmers and local traders, and reduces the negative impacts that middlemen often have. It is a supplier of a variety of types and grades of resins — including frankincense, myrrh, opoponax and gum arabic — and has been FairWild certified since 2023 (8,9).

Several other companies, such as Nagaad Resins and Gums, Kobac General Trading and other myrrh traders are also FairWild certified and supply these resins from these regions (7). As is often the case, when an opportunity is created for the people involved in the growing and harvesting of medicinal plants are able to organise and communicate with one another about their needs and challenges, they are better positioned to secure fairer compensation for their labour. This in turn creates more spaciousness to discuss, refine and implement sustainable harvest practices. 

Myrrh, as well as frankincense, grows in climates that are very challenging to life. Not just for the trees, but also for the people living alongside them, facing hot climates, droughts, and little fertile soil for permanent agriculture. Despite this, people and trees have lived alongside each other in these areas for thousands of years, and the tree resin, perhaps one of the most ancient things to be traded across continents, remains an important resource to humans all over the world. 

Now is a crucial time to pay attention to the trade of myrrh and the conditions that make it possible for us to use it whilst living so far away from the source of this resin. Currently, C. myrrha is not officially classified as globally endangered nor threatened (10). However, it is facing challenges in multiple, interconnected ways.

The harsh environments in which it grows are amongst the least able to buffer the impact of climate change and are already experiencing increased levels of drought. In regions where water is already so sparse, shifts in rainfall can determine whether ecosystems persist or not. These environmental pressures also contribute to broader socio-political instability, such as the change in land use. 

While the social sustainability of myrrh production remains uncertain on a larger scale, local community projects, particularly those working together with certification schemes such as FairWild, offer promise. These approaches can both sustain the ecological resource while also offering fairer pay and improved living conditions for those involved in the stewardship of the trees and the harvest of the resin. 

At a time of such global interconnectedness, supporting local communities who are maintaining sustainable relationships with these species is important now more than ever, not only for their livelihoods but for the continued availability of this incredibly valued natural resource. 

1. Small E. Frankincense and myrrh — imperilled divine symbols of religion’s duty to conserve biodiversity. Biodiversity. 2017;18(4):219-234. https://doi.org/10.1080/14888386.2017.1370390
2. Batiha GE, Wasef L, Teibo JO, et al. Commiphora myrrh: a phytochemical and pharmacological update. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol. 2023;396(3):405-420. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00210-022-02325-0
3. Blumenthal M, Goldberg A, Brinckmann J, eds. Herbal Medicine: Expanded Commission E Monographs. American Botanical Council; 2000.
4. Engels G, Brinckmann J. Myrrh Commiphora myrrha family: Burseraceae. HerbalGram. 2012;(93):1-4.
5. Hassan BA, Glover EK, Luukkanen O, et al. The role of Boswellia and Commiphora species in rural livelihood security and climate change adaptation in the Horn of Africa: case study of north-eastern Kenya. Int J Soc For. 2011;4:86-112.
6. Harper M. The Somali gold rush endangering frankincense and myrrh. BBC News. January 2023. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-64162379
7. Gizaw AW, Pretzsch J, Kassa H, Teketay D. Socio-ecological significance of collection and marketing of ancient forest commodities: the case of myrrh and opoponax in the dryland areas of southeastern Ethiopia. Paper presented at: Tropentag; September 17-19, 2014; Prague, Czech Republic.
8. FairWild Foundation. Myrrh. Accessed April 15, 2026. https://www.fairwild.org/ingredients/myrrh
9. Ihsan Resins Society. About. Accessed April 15, 2026. https://www.irsociety.ltd/about/
10. Royal Botanic Gardens Kew. Commiphora myrrha (T.Nees) Engl. Plants of the World Online. First published in A.L.P.P. de Candolle & A.C.P. de Candolle, Monogr. Phan. 4: 10 (1883). Accessed February 28, 2026. https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:127741-1

Native to the coastal regions of Southern California and Baja California, Mexico, white sage thrives in the sun-drenched, rocky soils of coastal sage scrub habitats. Its perennial nature and aromatic leaves have made it a mainstay for Indigenous communities, who cherish it for its ceremonial, medicinal, and culinary uses. Despite its abundance in certain areas, white sage faces mounting threats that could jeopardise its long-term survival and the integrity of the ecosystems it supports. Let’s delve into the key conservation challenges confronting white sage today.

Habitat loss and environmental threats

White sage faces a double jeopardy: not only is it overharvested, but it’s also losing ground to urban development and environmental stressors. Nearly half of its natural range has been destroyed to make way for cities, roads, and agriculture. The remaining habitats are under siege from climate change, invasive species, and altered fire regimes.

Projections are grim. Combined threats could shrink suitable white sage habitat by up to 66% by the end of the century. This loss reverberates beyond the ecological sphere, disrupting the cultural practices of Indigenous peoples who rely on white sage for ceremonies and healing. The plant’s decline represents both an environmental crisis and an erosion of cultural heritage.

Pollination ecology and hybridisation

White sage is a linchpin in its native ecosystem, supporting a diverse community of pollinators. Bees, especially those in the genera Bombus (bumblebees) and Xylocopa (carpenter bees), are its primary pollinators, ensuring the reproduction and resilience of local populations. In coastal sage scrub communities, Salvia apiana often stands as a dominant species, anchoring biodiversity. The health of pollinator populations is crucial; declines in bees due to pesticides, habitat loss, and disease further complicate conservation efforts.

Environmental changes

Human-driven changes are reshaping white sage’s world. Increased fire frequency — sometimes a result of careless human activity — destroys established plants and disrupts regeneration cycles. Invasive species like Echium candicans outcompete native sage for space and resources, further hindering its growth and reproduction.

At the same time, the decline of pollinators, especially bees, is a growing concern. These creatures are essential for white sage’s reproduction, and their disappearance could spell disaster for the species. The interplay of these factors underscores the fragility of white sage’s native range and the urgent need for conservation action.

Cultural appropriation and misuse

Perhaps the most contentious aspect of white sage’s contemporary story is its widespread use in wellness and spiritual practices — often divorced from its deep Indigenous roots. The burning of white sage to “cleanse energy” or “purify spaces” has become a staple of New Age rituals, yoga studios, and online wellness influencers. Yet, this appropriation frequently ignores the plant’s sacred significance and the traditions of the communities that have stewarded it for centuries.

This disconnect between traditional use and commercial exploitation diminishes the spiritual value of white sage and fuels irresponsible consumption. When consumers are unaware of the plant’s origins and importance, they may unwittingly contribute to unsustainable harvesting and the erosion of cultural knowledge.

Commercialisation and overexploitation

The commercialisation of white sage has reached unprecedented levels. Today, it’s easy to find bundles of white sage for sale on e-commerce sites and in big box stores across the United States. However, the supply chain is fraught: there are only a handful of farms cultivating white sage for the market, and most products are still wild-harvested.

Poaching, or illegal harvesting, has plagued the plant for years. In California and Baja Mexico, authorities have confiscated hundreds of pounds of illegally collected Salvia apiana, sometimes during the plant’s most vulnerable blooming season. Poachers often take entire plants or strip large quantities from single locations, preventing regrowth and devastating local populations. Law enforcement rarely catches perpetrators, and wild populations have suffered steep declines.

Commercial exploitation and illicit trade

The meteoric rise in the popularity of Salvia apiana in spiritual and wellness circles has triggered a dramatic increase in commercial harvesting. Each year, tens of thousands of pounds of wild white sage are stripped from the hillsides of California and Mexico to supply markets in the United States and abroad. This large-scale removal destabilises native ecosystems and puts immense pressure on the species, which is not currently listed as endangered but is certainly at risk (1).

Recent efforts to shed light on the unregulated white sage trade have revealed troubling patterns. For example, arrests in the Etiwanda Preserve — a protected area between Los Angeles and Palm Springs — spurred investigations by organisations such as United Plant Savers and the California Native Plant Society. Their work, along with documentaries like Saging the World, highlights the ecological and cultural consequences of unchecked harvesting (1,2,3).

At the heart of the issue is a shadowy network sometimes referred to as the “white sage mafia”. These groups exploit vulnerable individuals, recruiting them to harvest wild white sage for profit. Ironically, although the herb is relatively easy to cultivate, most commercially available sage is wild harvested because cultivation costs are higher. To counter this, United Plant Savers urge consumers and sellers to demand proof of cultivation, thereby supporting sustainable practices and reducing pressure on wild populations (2). Or grow your own, Plant Savers sells white sage seed, it can be expensive because the seeds are so small and are hand harvested, but germination rates are high.

International trade and supply chain concerns

The reach of white sage extends far beyond North America. Online marketplaces offer hundreds of white sage products, some vendors requiring bulk orders of 100 bundles or more. Reports indicate that a single seller may move tens of thousands of pounds of Salvia apiana in a year.

This global trade raises thorny questions about sustainability and cultural respect. For Native American tribes, the smoke from white sage is spiritually potent — a medium for blessings and prayers. Its commercialisation by non-Indigenous groups not only threatens wild populations but also appropriates sacred traditions.

Western spiritual movements have driven international demand since the 1980s, with a recent study from the Netherlands showing a strong preference for white sage among smudge stick users. Many consumers are drawn by the plant’s association with Native American spiritualism, deepening the market’s reach (2).

Yet, there are glaring gaps in our understanding of the global supply chain. On major e-commerce platforms, several Chinese companies offer bulk white sage, but sourcing and buyer information remain opaque. No comprehensive tracking system exists for international sales, leaving researchers and advocates in the dark about the true scale of the trade. Essential oil derived from Salvia apiana is also a popular scent for candles and other products.

For Indigenous peoples such as the Cahuilla, Diegueno, Luiseno, Mahuna, Chumash, Tongva, and Serrano, white sage is an indispensable part of life. Its seeds are edible, its leaves used as a spice, and its medicinal properties harnessed to calm nerves, treat colds, and act as a diuretic. The spiritual dimension is paramount; for the Chumash, tending to the spirit is integral to healing the body, and white sage plays a key role in maintaining spiritual wellbeing.

Since the 1980s, white sage has been embraced by a variety of cultures and spiritual movements. Burning sage leaves for ceremonial fumigation has grown popular far beyond Indigenous communities, with New Age, Neopagan, and Wiccan groups driving demand for smudge sticks and related products.

Although Salvia apiana is not formally classified as endangered, its conservation status is precarious. Intense commercial demand and environmental pressures have led to misconceptions and unsustainable harvesting. Legal collection is strictly regulated, permitted only on private land with proper permissions or from certified sustainable sources. Unfortunately, lax enforcement and unclear regulations have allowed habitat degradation to continue.

Amid these challenges, hope springs from grassroots efforts and community-based conservation. Local environmental organisations, Indigenous groups, and conservationists are leading the charge, focusing on cultivation, habitat restoration, and education. Protected areas like the North Etiwanda Preserve provide a haven for native species and ceremonial access for Indigenous peoples, while home cultivation and community stewardship promote biodiversity.

To reduce pressure on wild populations, advocates encourage consumers to choose sustainably sourced or home-grown white sage. Educational campaigns — such as Saging the World — seek to inform the public about responsible sourcing and the importance of respecting Indigenous practices (3).

The central message is clear: plants are not mere resources, but relationships. By viewing Salvia apiana through this lens, we can support both ecological resilience and the preservation of traditional knowledge. United Plant Savers has submitted white sage for Red Listing status to bring more international attention. Plants in trade have very little protection, so it’s up to us to ask important questions and take a stand.

The success of ongoing initiatives depends on collective action, the integration of traditional ecological knowledge, and the amplification of Indigenous voices. By working together, stakeholders can ensure that Salvia apiana — and the cultural practices intertwined with it — survive and thrive for generations to come. White sage’s plight is a microcosm of broader tensions between commerce, culture, and conservation. As demand continues to rise, so too does the responsibility to safeguard its future.

Through informed choices, respect for tradition, and active stewardship, we can honor the legacy of white sage and help it flourish in the wild and in the hearts of those who cherish it. Whether you burn a smudge stick or simply admire its silvery leaves on a hillside, remember: the story of white sage is one of resilience, community, and the enduring power of nature and tradition.

1. California Native Plant Society. White Sage Protection. California Native Plant Society. Accessed February 13, 2026. https://www.cnps.org/conservation/white-sage 
2. Geertsma IP, Zandstra BE, Stefanki A, van Andel TR. Commercialized “smudge sticks” used as incense in the Netherlands: an inventory of plants and trends behind a New Age fashion. Plants. 2024;13(3003):1–15.
3. Saging the World [film]. Directed by David Bryant, Rose Ramirez, and Deborah Small; produced by Rose Ramirez, Deborah Small, and California Native Plant Society. 2022. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_V7NoB1UPU8 Accessed February 13, 2026.

Saw palmetto (Serenoa repens) is a low-growing, shrubby palm native to the southeastern United States. The stem of saw palmetto is usually very short, and produces several stalks from which divided, fan-shaped leaves appear. These can span up to a meter across and may be composed of 18–30 segments. The leaf stems (petioles) have fine, sharp spines or teeth along the edges — giving the species its common name, saw palmetto. Clusters of white fragrant flowers, which grow on stalks give way to berries, which turn from green to orange to a purplish-black colour when ripe (1).

Saw palmetto grows as an undergrowth in forests, and on coastal sand shrubby areas. It’s an incredibly resilient plant, thriving on nutrient poor, acidic soils and being well adapted to fire disturbance. After fire, the plant grows rapidly, resprouting from root crowns and rhizomes. Periodic fires every five years seem to be beneficial to flowering and fruiting. However, being exposed to fire periodically, also helps to keep populations at bay, as without fire Serenoa repens soon completely dominates other plant species (2). Traditionally, fire was implemented by indigenous people to keep plant populations healthy but also in balance with other plant species (2).

Saw palmetto is native to the southeastern United States — Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina, which means, globally speaking, it has a fairly small natural habitat (1). In those areas, it can form unbroken plant populations that stretch for many miles (2). Seeds tend to have a very low germination rate, and the main way of reproduction seems to be mostly vegetatively via woody rhizomes lying on or just below the soil surface. Plants grow very slowly, but they can become very old, individual stems reaching 500 to 700 years of age, and some clonal patches are estimated to be around 5000 years old.

Saw palmetto is considered a keystone species — a species on which many other species in the ecosystem rely — as more than 100 bird species, 27 mammals, 25 amphibians, 61 reptiles, and countless insects use it as food and/or cover, including endangered species of bears and panthers (4). The flowers are an important source of pollen for insects, with over 300 different species of insects visiting the flowers (5).

By indigenous people, this plant was cherished as well and used in various ways. The berries were eaten as a food and used as medicine (6), the stalks were used to gain fibres for basketry, and the leaves used as thatch and for bedding material (2,6). In Florida, saw almetto is very common, covering vast areas of land, to the point that it used to be considered a pest by land developers and farmers, and pesticide use was encouraged to manage it (3).

Westerners started using and selling saw palmetto as medicine in the late 19th century, when it soon became popular. In the 1890s 250 tonnes of the berries were being used to make extracts (3). However, since herbal medicine lost popularity in the 19th and 20th centuries, trade with saw palmetto didn’t see another burst until the 1970s, when herbal medicine had a resurgence of interest.

Until the late 20th century, saw palmetto was mainly conceived as a pest species, to be eradicated with the use of machinery and herbicides to free the land for agricultural or land developmental uses (7). But with increasing interest in saw palmetto berries as a medicine, particularly from European countries, and increased research, providing evidence for its use, demand for the berry soon rocketed. Until then, harvest and sales of palmetto berries happened mostly under the radar. The harvest was mostly done by migrant farm workers who received a few cents per pound. But as the demand went up, so did the prices and harvesters could get as much as 3.00$ per pound. This led to land owners and the state of Florida to show more interest and soon harvesters needed the land owners permission to harvest the berries from plants growing on their land (8).

Landowners hired crew leaders, who in turn would employ harvest crews to do the actual harvest. Landowners would typically receive $0.44–0.46/kg, with $0.15-0.17/kg going to the pickers and $0.07/kg going to the crewleaders. For landowners this represents a lucrative business, potentially creating more yearly income than from cattle, which the land would normally be used for (7). In the following years, the demand remained high, although supply tends to fluctuate, as fruiting seems to follow a boom and bust pattern, some years bringing much higher yields than other years. And fruiting success is generally fairly low for saw palmetto.

Additionally, extreme weather events, especially large amounts of rain, can severely impact maturation and harvest rates (10). In 2010 worldwide sales of saw palmetto supplements were approximately US $700 million, with the United States accounting for US $200 million alone — showing the high demand for this crop.

Since the boom of saw palmetto, more and more voices have spoken out to regulate the saw palmetto trade, as nature conservationists highlight that the berry is a vital food source for wild animals. In 2018 the Endangered Plant Advisory Council of the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services added saw palmetto to Florida’s “commercially exploited plant list”. As a result of this, a “Native Plant Harvesting Permit” is now required on top of the land owner’s permit to be able to harvest saw palmetto fruits.

From July 2024, the illegal harvest or possession of saw palmetto berries is treated as a third degree felony, punishable by up to five years of prison. Since then, several instances of saw palmetto theft have been reported (11,12,13). One of these included approximately 768 kg of berries worth $3,309 (13). A question that remains open is how the increasingly abundant and restrictive regulations affect the already marginalised harvesters of saw palmetto.

Florida has one of the largest farming communities of the United States with over 100,000 farm workers (14). Two thirds are seasonal workers and one third migrants, all generally earning a marginal income. And the “contracting” system, by which a work force is contracted to work on farms via middle men (crew leaders) can make it very difficult to take action against abuse within the work force.

The Coalition of Immokalee Workers (CIW), a worker-based human rights organisation internationally recognised for its achievements in the fields of social responsibility, human trafficking, and gender-based violence at work has recorded several cases of gross abuse of human rights between 1997–2010, where workers were forced to work against their will, sometimes through threats, by retaining their passports or the use of physical violence (15). Other cases illustrate very demanding working conditions, 12 hour working days, six days a week, for as little as 20$ a week (15).

While no cases are specifically known regarding the harvesters of saw palmetto, as there is little transparency within the saw palmetto trade, it is impossible to positively exclude the likelihood of these conditions for harvesters. Saw palmetto harvest is hard work, partly due to the intense heat during the harvest months, but the plant itself makes harvest difficult. Thickets of saw palmetto stands can be too thick to penetrate, and the teeth on the stalks can rip clothing and cause wounds, and venomous snakes can hide between plants. Death of saw palmetto harvesters due to snake bites has been mentioned in the literature (16).

Overall Serenoa repens is considered as ‘apparently secure G4’. Populations in Mississippi and Florida are secure, while in South Carolina they are deemed ‘vulnerable’ and in Louisiana ‘critically imperiled’. Georgia and Alabama have not been assessed at this time (17).

The American Botanical Council raises concerns regarding its future sustainability. The greatest threats to saw palmetto today are habitat loss due to land change use — i.e. land being turned into agricultural land for crops, or converted to urban land. It is perhaps noteworthy that not all regulations seem to make sense in this regard. While berry harvest is seen as a threat to wildlife, land conversion to agricultural or urban land, doesn’t seem to be considered with the same vigor, even though arguably it presents a greater threat — though perhaps a better economical bargain. Climate change is a challenge for berry crops, as severe rainfall can cause fungal infections that affect the berries. It also represents long-term challenges as sea-level rises are predicted to affect the local coastal areas, one of the main habitats for saw palmetto (16).

However, other climate change effects are predicted to extend saw palmetto’s natural habitat inland, potentially increasing its habitat (18). This highlights the complexity of climate change, and how challenging it can be to accurately predict long-term impact. Some saw palmetto clone patches are said to be 8.000 years old, showing just how resistant they can be (19).

However, the land changes brought about due to human activity might yet prove more damaging — as with the Amazon rainforest, which has survived at least 50 million years of various climate changes, yet may fall due to the impact of fairly recent human activity on the land.

Perhaps saw palmetto shows a contrasting affair, where economical interest offers some level of protection of natural resources, but whether this is enough is unclear. A lack of transparency and sustainability incentives means that those involved in harvest are at risk of exploitation and further marginalisation.

With a plant that is in such high demand, there is great potential for development; either to expand an already extractive mindset, or to provide a fair system that benefits local wildlife, wild harvesters and everyone involved in the supply chain. There are projects out there that demonstrate that wild harvesting can be done in such a way, prioritising fairness, people and the planet, whilst retaining economic viability.

1. Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew. Serenoa repens – saw palmetto. Accessed November 24, 2025. https://www.kew.org/plants/saw-palmetto Kew Gardens
2. Anderson MK, Oakes T. Plant Guide for Saw Palmetto (Serenoa repens). USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service, National Plant Data Team; 2012: Davis, CA.
3. Foster S. Saw palmetto in commerce — Part 1: Revelations from European contact to 1990. Sustainable Herbs Initiative. 2019. Sustainable Herbs Initiative
4. Maehr DS, Layne JN. Florida’s all-purpose plant, the saw palmetto. The Palmetto. 1996;16(4):6-10, 15, 21. suncoast.fnpschapters.org
5. Deyrup M, Deyrup L. The Diversity of Insects Visiting Flowers of Saw Palmetto (Arecaceae). Florida Entomologist. 2012;95(3):711-730. https://doi.org/10.1653/024.095.0322
6. American Botanical Council. Saw palmetto berry. In: Expanded Commission E Monographs. Accessed November 25, 2025. https://www.herbalgram.org/resources/expanded-commission-e-monographs/saw-palmetto-berry/
7. Carrington ME, Mullahey JJ, Krewer G, Boland B, Affolter J. Saw palmetto (Serenoa repens): an emerging forest resource in the southeastern United States. South. J. Appl. For. 2000;24(3):129-134. ResearchGate
8. Foster S. Saw palmetto sustainability — change in 140 years of commerce and conservation: 1879-2019. Sustainable Herbs Initiative. 2019. Sustainable Herbs Initiative
9. Carrington ME, Mullahey JJ. Effects of burning season and frequency on saw palmetto (Serenoa repens) flowering and fruiting. For. Ecol. Manag. 2006;230:69-78. faculty.nelson.wisc.edu
10. Gafner S, Baggett S. Adulteration of saw palmetto (Serenoa repens). Version 3. Botanical Adulterants Prevention Bulletin. 2018.
11. Farrow H. What are saw palmetto berries, and why would someone steal 800 pounds of them? Tampa Bay Times. August 28, 2024. 
12. Gay N. Florida saw palmetto berry bust leads to 11 arrests and seizure of 6,000-pound bounty: MCSO. FOX 13 Tampa Bay. Published August 13, 2025. Accessed December 14, 2025. https://www.fox13news.com/news/florida-saw-palmetto-berry-bust-leads-11-arrests-seizure-6000-pound-bounty-mcso
13. Franklin O. Martin County detectives arrest 10 men on charges involving theft of palmetto berries. Treasure Coast. Published 2025. Accessed December 14, 2025. https://eu.tcpalm.com/story/news/crime/martin-county/2025/08/13/detectives-arrest-11-related-to-illegal-palmetto-berry-harvesting/85642986007/
14. Rural Neighborhoods. Florida’s farm workers. Accessed November 26, 2025. https://www.ruralneighborhoods.org/what-we-do/farm-workers/floridas-farm-workers/
15. Coalition of Immokalee Workers. Slavery in the Fields and the Food We Eat. Accessed November 26, 2025. https://ciw-online.org/wp-content/uploads/12SlaveryintheFields.pdf
16. Foster S. The historical interplay of plant biology, trade, and human interactions with saw palmetto. HerbalGram. 2021-22;123:36-67. GlobeNewswire
17. NatureServe Explorer. Serenoa repens – saw palmetto. Accessed November 26, 2025. https://explorer.natureserve.org/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.139448/Serenoa_repens
18. Butler CJ, Larson M. Climate change winners and losers: The effects of climate change on five palm species in the Southeastern United States. Ecol Evol. 2020;10(19):10408-10425. Published 2020 Sep 1. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.6697 
19. Ancient Saw Palmettos in the Heart of Florida – United Plant Savers. United Plant Savers. Published January 7, 2019. https://unitedplantsavers.org/ancient-saw-palmettos-in-the-heart-of-florida/ 

When seeking a replacement solution, consider herbs with:

• A similar action profile
• A related phytochemical profile
• Comparable taste, qualities and energetics
• Corresponding traditional uses
• Local origins
• More sustainable plant parts used

Considerations when substituting different plant parts of endangered herbs

It is always worth reflecting on the impact of harvesting different plant parts:

• Barks: Removal of barks can kill trees. Taking many years to regenerate, they should be either coppiced or removed in a rotation.
• Resins: Tapping the resin of plants can drain nutritive reserves and weaken defences.
• Roots: Digging roots can remove the whole plant, reducing the potential for future growth and damaging population densities.
• Flowers: Prevents the formation of seeds and furthering of genetic diversity.
• Seeds: Harvesting can prevent the spread of genetic diversity and reduce local populations.
• Fruits: Harvesting reduces the potential for spreading the seed.

Substitutes rarely produce identical effects; sometimes it may just be one aspect of a plant’s therapeutics that can be replicated by another; at other times two herbs may be needed to meet the same qualities as the original choice.

Goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis) is a herb that finding a replacement for is advisable because

• its wild populations are threatened and it is CITES listed 
• it has a long growing cycle making availability limited 
• due to ‘a’ and ‘b’, it is very expensive

Goldenseal is a herb native to North America, that has a long history of use by indigenous peoples and remains a highly valued herb in Western herbalism today, owing to the following qualities:

Goldenseal actions

• Anti-inflammatory
• Antimicrobial
• Bitter
• Cholagogue and choleretic
• Emmenagogue
• Hepatic
• Stomachic
• Vulnerary

Body systems support

Goldenseal supports different body systems, including

• Digestion
• Skin
• Reproductive system

Goldenseal energetics

• Bitter
• Astringent
• Cooling
• Toning

Goldenseal phytochemistry

• Isoquinoline alkaloids (2.5–6%) — hydrastine (minimum 2%)
• Berberine (minimum 2.5%)
• Canadine
• Berberastine
• Chlorogenic acid
• Volatile oil
• Resin
• Lipids
• Sterol and flavonoids (1)

Goldenseal substitution options 

Any bitter herb, such as andrographis or artichoke leaf, may be initially considered as a replacement, which would often suffice on its own due to the inherent cooling, drying and broad-spectrum antimicrobial effects of bitters in general. Bitter herbs containing berberine, such as barberry (Berberis vulgaris) or Oregon grape root (Berberis aquifolium), are all the better — though, of course, as roots (rootbarks, no less) these also face sustainability issues.

Other berberine-containing species, such as huang lian (Coptis chinensis) and daruharidra (Berberis aristata) also face sustainability threats in China and the Himalayas and are not recommended replacements. The efficacy of berberine in promoting weight loss and improving glucose metabolism has incited interest in the herb as a natural alternative to GLP-1 receptor agonists, such as Ozempic and Wegovy, despite producing a less significant effect, which is only leading to higher demand for berberine (2,3). And whilst berberine can be made synthetically, its a complex process rendering it costly and with safety risks (4).

To ensure the mucous membrane toning effects of goldenseal, combine the most appropriate bitter herb with an astringent herb, such as meadowsweet (Filipendula ulmaria) for the digestive system, calendula (Calendula off.) for the skin, and yarrow (Achillea millefolium) for the reproductive system — or any companion herbs with an affinity for the affected system. If it’s a specific digestive antimicrobial then garlic (Allium sativum) would be especially appropriate, if more astringency is required, consider combining with triphala, or if the issue is dermatological, alteratives are particularly useful.

Some herbs are much easier to substitute than others. Just as goldenseal is relatively easy to replace, so are slippery elm (Ulmus spp.) and gentian (Gentiana lutea); many herbs share their demulcent, nutritive or bitter digestive effects. However, herbs such as boswellia (Boswellia serrata), cordyceps (Ophiocordyceps sinensis), saw palmetto (Serenoa repens) or rhodiola (Rhodiola rosea) are more difficult to replicate as their actions and compounds are so specific.

Near equivalence can be achieved, but it will always be a compromise. Fortunately, this does not have to negatively impact clinical outcomes, as there are many approaches to creating a therapeutic strategy and personalised treatment that can initiate the healing response.

For a quick look guide through the Herbal Reality library of monographs, use the ‘herbal actions’ filter to view all of the herbs with a shared function — anti-inflammatory, analgesic, circulatory stimulant, or uterine tonic, for example.

Below are some suggested substitutions for replicating some aspects of our most challenged wild herbs. The following herbs are critically endangered.

Endangered herb	Replacement
Devil’s claw	Turmeric, willow, meadowsweet
False unicorn	Vitex agnus castus, motherwort, lady’s mantle, raspberry leaf
Goldenseal	Barberry, garlic, triphala
Jatamansi	Valerian, cramp bark, brahmi, skullcap
Kutki	Andrographis, barberry
Myrrh (Guggul)	Calendula 90% extracted tincture
Pasqueflower	Valerian, wood betony, ashwagandha, lady’s mantle
Rhodiola	Ashwagandha, brahmi, skullcap, tulsi, lion’s mane

Here are also some suggested replacements for other endangered herbs whose populations are currently under threat.

Endangered herb	Replacement
Albizia	St John’s wort, lavender, melissa
Arjuna	Hawthorn, motherwort, yarrow
Arnica	Daisy, calendula, St, John’s wort
Asafoetida	Garlic, ransoms (wild garlic)
Atractylodes	Liquorice, angelica, astragalus,
Baical skullcap	Barberry, oregon grape root
Bibhitaki	Meadowsweet
Black cohosh	Vitex agnus-castus, motherwort, ashwagandha
Black root	Chelidonium, rhubarb root
Boswellia	Turmeric, ginger
Cat’s claw	Astragalus, echinacea, reishi
Chaga	Reishi, turkey tail
Codonopsis	Siberian ginseng, nettle, rehmannia, cinnamon, astragalus
Corydalis	St. John’s wort, feverfew, turmeric
Echinacea	Garlic, thyme, astragalus
Eyebright	Chamomile, chrysanthemum, sage, self-heal
Gentian	Andrographis, artichoke, wormwood, dandelion
Ginseng	Siberian ginseng, ashwagandha, jiaogulan
Jamaican dogwood	St. John’s wort, valerian, cramp bark
Manjistha	Burdock root, yarrow, turmeric
Marshmallow	Liquorice, linseed, mullein, plantain
Mistletoe	Hawthorn, motherwort, yarrow, cramp bark
Red sage	Hawthorn, turmeric, yarrow
Saw palmetto	Nettle root
Schisandra	Milk thistle, rosemary
Senna	Cascara sagrada, rhubarb root, yellow dock
Siberian ginseng	Ashwaganda, nettle seed, liquorice, astragalus
Slippery elm	Marshmallow, plantain, linseed, mullein

Sadly, many of the potential substitutes are also threatened, so it is of utmost importance to know the source, ensuring sustainable cultivation or wild-harvesting that carries a third party certification, establishing that good practice has taken place.

Other resources to explore include:

• United Plant Savers have developed some useful lists and tools for assessing Sustainable status of herbs that is worth a look.
• Access the IUCN Red List
• Access the CITES list

Before choosing which herbs to use and purchase, important questions to ask are:

• Where is this species / herb / product grown?
• Is there any environmental certification — e.g. Organic?
• Is there any social certification — e.g. Fairtrade?
• Is the herb from the wild? If so, is it certified — e.g. by FairWild?
• Is there a mention of quality standards? If not, why not?!

Of course, some of these recommendations are just suggestions, and herbalists must use their own expertise and specific clinical needs in selecting replacements for endangered herbs. This is a work-in-progress so do please share any of your insights or recommendations further to these listed above.

1. Fisher C. Materia Medica of Western Herbs. London: Aeon Books; 2018.
2. Ilyas Z, Perna S, Al-Thawadi S, et al. The effect of Berberine on weight loss in order to prevent obesity: A systematic review. Biomed Pharmacother. 2020;127:110137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2020.110137 
3. Araj-Khodaei M, Ayati MH, Azizi Zeinalhajlou A, et al. Berberine-induced glucagon-like peptide-1 and its mechanism for controlling type 2 diabetes mellitus: a comprehensive pathway review. Arch Physiol Biochem. 2024;130(6):678-685. https://doi.org/10.1080/13813455.2023.2258559 
4. Meher AK, Zarouri A, & Kumar M. Rethinking Synthetic Berberine in Nutraceuticals: Nitrosamine Risks, Regulatory Oversight, and Safer Alternatives. Preprints. 2025. https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202508.1171.v1 

The pink or purple flowered pau d’arco (H. impetiginosus) is typically used in the European and US herbal products markets. Though the most common species in trade, different Handroanthus species are found in ethnomedicine, like the yellow flowered pau d’arco (H. serratifolius) native to South and Central America, are considered to be similar biochemically, each producing lapachol, and are likely to be similarly efficacious (2).

The inner bark of pau d’arco is the part used as medicine and is believed to be antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, and anti-tumoral. Pau d’arco has been used by several groups of indigenous peoples in South America for a variety of conditions including stomach aches, fevers, colds and flu (the leaves), leishmaniasis, dysentery, and (with other species) diabetes. Others report use for “various maladies, especially cancer,” as an astringent, and for liver cirrhosis (3).

The inner bark of yellow pau d’arco, much like other species of the Handroanthus genus, is a natural source for lapachol, a compound that has been studied for anti-inflammatory, anticancer,antiparasitic and immune-modulating activities (4).

Pau d’arco trees, generally referred to as “ipê” in trade, produce very hard, heavy, durable wood that is highly valued in the market. It is sold locally for constructing houses, bridges, flooring, decking and handicrafts. Internationally it is primarily used for decking (5). The inner bark used for medicinal products on the international market Is a by-product of the logging industry.

Once the trees are logged, they are floated by river to urban areas for further processing. Because the wood is so heavy, buoys are used to keep it from sinking (6).

Brazil is the highest exporter of ipê, which are some of the most expensive species used in logging on the market in Brazil. The timber is referred to as the ‘new big leaf mahogany’ (Swietenia macrophylla), which was listed on CITES because of declines from overharvesting.

This has increased the price and demand for ipê and led to its listing in CITES Appendix 2 as well. The US and European countries are the main importers. There are no plantations of ipê and so all of this wood comes from natural forests. Over harvesting of the trees and deforestation from demand for agricultural land are the major threats. Habitat loss from fires, development, and conversion to pastures for livestock also threaten the species (7).

Over 525 million kg (or 469,613 m³) of ipê timber products were exported from Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Peru between 2017 and 2021. Most ipê is exported from Brazil, which accounted for 96% of the trade (based on volume).

The low natural density and the low growth rate of H. serratifolius (Ipê Amarelo), as well as H. impetiginosus (Ipê Rosa), typical of most of the other species within the three CITES-listed genera (Handroanthus, Roseodendron and Tabebuia), combined with high demand for international trade, habitat loss and degradation, has resulted in populations being negatively impacted. In the forests of northeastern Brazil, H. impetiginosus and H. serratifolius have shown drastic population declines, with no evidence of long-term population recovery.

H. serratifolius is categorised as globally Endangered in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species on the basis that it is threatened by international trade and is predicted to experience a population decline of at least 50% over the next 100 years (7). H. impetiginosus is assessed as Near Threatened, noting that its populations have declined considerably as a result of unsustainable exploitation for the international timber trade, with population declines of at least 25% expected over the next 100 year (7,8).

Unsustainable logging of the trees has led to significant declines in the population of the trees. The species also has a difficult time recovering from logging. In addition, the IUCN/Traffic have found evidence of illegal harvest and trade of the species as well as potential fraud in logging permits in Brazil (9). They also found that logging companies overestimated the sustainability of harvesting practices (10).

Since 1997, H. impetiginosa has been considered Endangered, while H. Incana and H. serratifolia are considered Vulnerable. In 2015, a Working Group in which PEBANI participated, proposed a new Official List of Categorization of Threatened Species. In 2016, through Ministerial Resolution, this list was put up for consideration. All species of the genus Handroanthus maintained their categorization as Endangered or Vulnerable (11). The species has since elevated to international protection and monitoring of export trade as per the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES).

The three genera Handroanthus, Roseodendron and Tabebuia were added to in CITES Appendix II at the Nineteenth meeting of the Conference for CITES of the Parties Panama City, November 2022. Entry into effect however was delayed by 24 months, i.e. until 25 November 2024. CITES Appendix II “lists species that are not necessarily now threatened with extinction but that may become so unless trade is closely controlled.”

It also includes so-called “look-alike species”, i.e. species whose specimens in trade look like those of species listed for conservation reasons (see Article II, paragraph 2 of the Convention)(12). International trade in specimens of Appendix-II species may be authorized by the granting of an export permit or re-export certificate. No import permit is necessary for these species under CITES (although a permit is needed in some countries that have taken stricter measures than CITES requires).

Permits or certificates should only be granted if the relevant authorities are satisfied that certain conditions are met, above all that trade will not be detrimental to the survival of the species in the wild. (See Article IV of the Convention)” The CITES listings came with Annotation #17 which limits the scope to logs, sawn wood, veneer sheets, plywood and transformed wood. This means that the inner bark used in traditional herbal medicine is excluded from CITES controls (13).

However, the inner bark is obtained as a by-product from felling entire trees for the logs, which still links this medicinal plant part to the overall controls and monitoring. Because the entire Handroanthus genus is listed in CITES Appendix II, it is supposed to go through a series of controls when transporting to the city. Because of potential fraud in logging permits, this is not a reliable method of ensuring that the trees have been harvested according to CITES guidelines. 

CITES and the Peruvian Service of National Forest and Fauna (SERFOR) do not consider pau d’arco inner bark as commercially restricted. SERFOR requires a forest management plan for this product, which must be approved by them, along with field and warehouse inspections (11).

Historically, the pau d’arco of commerce originated from the inner bark of H. impetiginosus trees native to Central and South America primarily obtained as a by-product of the logging industry in Brazil.

Though export trade of logs and wood from the trees are regulated by CITES, because of concerns over permitting fraud, buyers must ensure that they are purchasing from companies that know the source and are abiding by CITES regulations, such as a forest management plan and controlled harvesting. Other concerns are that the outer bark is mixed with the inner bark, which is the part of the plant that has the necessary constituents.

Companies typically purchase pau d’arco through a broker and so it can be difficult to get much information about harvesting practices.

I was able to get some information through a US based company who contacted their supplier who in turn answered my questions via email. They explained that they work with a network of trusted suppliers across Brazil, primarily in the regions in North and Northeast Brazil.

They explained that the Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renováveis (IBAMA), the environmental agency overseeing the harvesting process, plays a crucial role in preserving both the local forests and communities. Through sustainable harvesting practices monitored by IBAMA, this supplier wrote, communities can continue to earn income and sustain their way of life.

Responsible sourcing

In the initial report that recommended inclusion of all Handroanthus species in CITES Appendix II, the authors didn’t find evidence that the trade for herbal remedies impacts wild populations. Logging and habitat conversion remain the main drivers. But ethical sourcing of pau d’arco can create a market for sustainably logging the ipê trees by ensuring that they are harvested only when a forest management plan is intact that accounts for harvesting levels and replanting practices. The company must also demonstrate that sourcing the material adheres to the guidelines in their forest management plan. 

US based companies with whom I spoke who currently source their products from Brazil expressed their concern over the lack of visibility into the market for pau d’arco and an interest in finding traceable supplies. 

Pebani, a Peruvian company, is currently working toward FairWild certification for yellow pau d’arco and offers an alternative source for this product (14). Pebani was started in 1996 to improve the livelihoods of rural communities in the Peruvian Amazon and Andes through the sustainable sourcing of medicinal plants.

Cesar Barriga, the founder, a forest engineer, believes that the best-preserved forests are in the hands of indigenous people. Pebani is working to show indigenous communities that there is a market for products that are sustainably harvested and to provide these communities with the tools needed to source them.

As in Brazil, the main threats that facing pau d’arco in Peru are illegal logging, illegal mining, and subsistence farming. There is growing migration from the Andes to the Amazon because it is easier to work with crops in the Amazon.

According to Paulo Barriga, Cesar’s son and Chief of Operations at Pebani, 90% of the deforestation in Peru is from burning to clear the forest for small farms, from 5–30 hectares. There is a value in providing ways of making a living through harvesting medicinal plants that require the forest to remain intact.

Pebani finds supplies of pau d’arco first by identifying local communities that are both well established and that have legal tenure to the area. This is difficult in Peru because many communities don’t have ownership rights to the area where they live. And so, as a second step, Pebani works with the community to help them get the ownership titles needed.

They then do a preliminary survey of the forest to see how many pau d’arco trees are in the region. They extrapolate from this number to the whole area. That then determines whether Pebani believe it is worth the investment of doing an in-depth forest management plan which will determine how much they can harvest from a particular area. The forest management plan involves walking the entire area and putting a tag and GPS marker on every tree.

Pebani presents this plan to the government to get the permits needed to begin working in the area. They also need to submit annual operating plans documenting their harvest. There is quite a bit of bureaucracy to get permits and other requirements from the government. This is very important, Paulo explained, because it helps the government control the process.

Once Pebani receives an order, they identify those in the community who are willing to do the work. It’s difficult to find people because the work is hard. Once the trees are cut, the harvesters cut out the outer bark to harvest the inner bark.

It is dried in solar driers in the field and then sent to Lima for further processing. Rather than selling the timber in the market, the harvesters are able to keep the wood to use for local construction. As part of the management plan, Pebani replants three plants for every one cut.

Pebani pays the harvesters by the kilo for the dried product. They work with collectors as long as there is an order. 

Much of Pebani’s work is in the community with training. Because the trees take 20 years to grow, Pebani is also working in the communities to help them grow other crops like cacao, that can be grown in an agroforestry setting. Pebani staff are working with community members to develop different drying processes to bring more value to the community. Pebani invests in the communities in other ways as well, by providing water filters because the water quality is poor and a boat so that villagers can travel more easily. 

Some of the main challenges Pebani faces are the lack of ownership titles, the bureaucracy, and potential adulteration.

Another ongoing challenge for Pebani is the lack of demand. This means that they cannot provide a steady income to the harvesters, who then turn to other work, like clearing the forest for farming and livestock. Pebani pays a good price yet, Paulo explained, if they can only sell 100 kilos a year, they are still not able to provide a sustainable livelihood for the collectors. And so, paying fair prices is only part of the picture. There also needs to be a steady demand.

From Pebani’s perspective, it is good for companies to buy CITES products. Paulo said, “Some people believe that if something is listed in CITES they shouldn’t touch it. But even if you don’t touch it, people will still illegally harvest it.

And wild harvesters who might sustainably harvest the tree will simply shift to another source of income like growing corn. It also means that when bigger companies are willing to source the species sustainably under CITES, they will be required to implement a plan to replant the trees and invest in the overall preservation of the area.”

To prove his point, Paulo mentioned an article by someone who bought a huge area of land in the Amazon, yet this person said that buying land wasn’t the best way to protect it because he didn’t necessarily know what was happening on that land. But if you are sourcing something sustainably from the area, you have to go there, you have to know what is happening on the ground. You need to work with the local communities and the government to make sure following the regulations.

In 2022 Pebani began the process of becoming FairWild certified. They decided on the FairWild certification after speaking with Josef Brinckmann from Traditional Medicinals.

So far, in working toward the certification, a risk analysis for pau d’arco and three other medicinal plants from the region were carried out, hired trainers to help them prepare the necessary documents and are provide training for the collectors. As soon as they complete the trainings for the communities, they will schedule the FairWild audit and begin being able to provide FairWild certified products (15,16).

I once asked Paulo what would a partnership based in mutuality and trust emphasize with a brand? He explained that Pebani is looking for collaboration with both brands and buyers.

They hope to find buyers who are open to sharing the process around what they do around quality control, etc. to help Pebani better understand how they can add value to their process. In other words, Pebani is looking for buyers who work with them the way that Pebani is working in the communities from whom they source.

1. Bussmann R. Assessment of equivalence of Tabebuia serratifolia (Vahl) Nichols and Tabebuia impetiginosa (Mart. Ex DC.) Standl. William Brown Center, Missouri Botanic Garden; 2012. 
2. Gentry A. A synopsis of Bignoniaceae ethnobotany and economic botany. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden. 1992;79(1):53-64.
3. Rodrigues E. Plants and animals utilized as medicines in the Jaú National Park (JNP), Brazilian Amazon. Phytotherapy Research. 2006;20:378-391.
4. Jiménez-González FJ, Veloza LA, Sepúlveda-Arias JC. Anti-infectious activity in plants of the genus Tabebuia.
5. IUCN/TRAFFIC. Inclusion of trumpet trees Handroanthus spp., Tabebuia spp., and Roseodendron spp. in Appendix II with annotation #6. IUCN/TRAFFIC Analyses of Proposals to CoP18. 2019. 
6. Barriga P. Personal communication. March 18, 2024. 
7. Hills R. Handroanthus serratifolius. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2021. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T61985509A145677076.en. 
8. Hills R. Handroanthus impetiginosus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2021. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T144297143A173394208.en
9. Brancalion PHS, de Almeida DRA, Vidal E, Molin PG, Sontag VE, Souza SEXF, Schulze MD. Fake legal logging in the Brazilian Amazon. Science Advances. 2018;4(8). 
10. IUCN/TRAFFIC. Inclusion of trumpet trees Handroanthus spp., Tabebuia spp., and Roseodendron spp. in Appendix II with annotation #6. IUCN/TRAFFIC Analyses of Proposals to CoP18. 2019. 
11. Barriga C, Barriga P. Email communication. April 12, 2024. 
12. CITES. Appendices. [Accessed May 3, 2024]. Available from: https://cites.org/eng/app/appendices.php
13. CITES. Index. [Accessed May 3, 2024]. Available from: https://cites.org/eng/app/index.php
14. Pebani website. [Accessed May 3, 2024]. Available from: https://www.pebani.com.pe/
15. FairWild website. [Accessed May 3, 2024]. Available from: https://www.fairwild.org/
16. Schippmann U. Risk classification of species proposed for FairWild certification. Summary Data Sheet: Pebani, RA20200208 by IUCN Medicinal Plants Specialist Group. March 18, 2022. 

CITES is a global wildlife policy agreement, created in 1975, set up to address the extinction crisis by facilitating the international trade of plants and animals through a permitting system and regulations.

The convention aims to ensure the trade of wild species is non-detrimental to their wild populations by advocating for a conservation through sustainable use approach.

There are around 38,700 species, 5,950 species of animals, and 32,800 species of plants, protected by CITES. Plants and their products are regulated in international trade for uses such as health care, building materials, ornamental use, furniture, food, and cosmetics.  

CITES has 184 countries and states that collectively meet to review the progress of species conservation, amend CITES regulations, and review the problems and success of implementing the legislation. A CITES COP is usually held every 3 years and is a critical meeting for wildlife conservation.  

The 19th meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES CoP19) is taking place in Panama City, Panama in November 2022.

CITES regulates at least 1,280 species of medicinal and aromatic plants (1). There is a CITES working programme on medicinal and aromatic plants, along with proposals to add medicinal plants to CITES regulations.

There has been a call to engage with stakeholders and consumers in the medicinal and aromatic plant industry. The actions are to enhance awareness of CITES regulations and strengthen the legal trade of medicinal plants. There are also actions to evaluate the scientific data required to facilitate sustainable trade and understand the trade value chains of medicinal plant species.

Signatories to the convention are required to make sustainability assessments when exporting CITES plants to ensure wild populations are not at threat from overharvesting. The sustainability finding is known as a Non-Detriment Finding and CITES signatories have guidance in place to conduct these assessments.

The type of data analysed includes the taxonomy, conservation status, the source, trade volumes, threats to the species, evaluating available harvesting or management plans for the species, and understanding the regeneration and ecology of the species. The CITES signatories have been discussing frankincense (Boswellia) species in detail and gathering information on its biology and trade.

There are concerns that many species of Boswellia are at threat and issues of identification and lookalike species such as myrrh (Commiphora) species. The dialogues suggest further consultations are required but the harvesting and trade of this genus likely meet the criteria to be listed on CITES, however, this has not been proposed for this year’s World Wildlife Conference.

CITES is known as a science-based convention. There are criteria for listing species on CITES and species must meet certain biological and trade criteria. This year, a proposal for golden root or roseroot (Rhodiola spp.) to be regulated on CITES has been submitted by China, the EU, Ukraine, the UK, and the USA. 

Rhodiola is native to the Subarctic and Subalpine Northern Hemisphere, the taxonomy of the genus is unresolved, however, 69 accepted species have been recorded on the scientific database called the World Checklist of Vascular Plants (2). Rhodiola rosea is valued in ornamental trade and gardens however it is being proposed for CITES regulations because of the medicinal plant trade. Rhodiola rosea has a long history of medicinal use for health benefits related to stress-related fatigue and physical and mental performance enhancement (3). 

For a species to be regulated on CITES, one or more countries may put forward a CITES species listing proposal. The species must be endemic to some of the countries who put forward the proposal with details outlining the taxonomy of the species, distribution, habitat, biological characteristics, morphological characteristics, ecological role, population size and trends, its utilisation, parts or products in trade, legal and illegal trade, management, monitoring measures and more.

The proposal should be consulted with any country which has this as a native species. The signatories of CITES review the proposal, and a two-thirds majority vote is required to accept a proposal.

CITES advocates for regulating the part or product in trade, which is exported from the main trade countries, often only parts of the trade chain are regulated. This part of the legislation is called the annotation.

The rhodiola proposal has suggested listing the genus to regulate all parts and derivatives except seeds and pollen and finished products packaged and ready for the retail trade. This proposal intends to regulate Rhodiola rhizomes from the main countries of harvesting.

Rhodiola is a plant that has boomed in popularity in recent years, perhaps because of its stress supporting properties. We will use it here as an example of a plant regulated under CITES. Medicinal use of Rhodiola is globally documented in North America, Europe, and Central and East Asia evidenced through pharmacopeia’s, ethnobotanical studies and folk medicine references (4).

The main exporters of R. rosea are Russia for raw plant material and China for Rhodiola products, mainly derived from R. crenulata. (5). In China, there is a high diversity of Rhodiola species and 21 species of Rhodiola are used (6). Rhodiola rosea occurs naturally in 29 countries. Globally, demand for Rhodiola rosea and its compound salidroside has led to some wild populations becoming threatened (7).

The conservation status of the species varies from IUCN Red List categories of Critically Endangered to Least Concern indicating harvesting threats are greater in populations in Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, China, Czechia, Mongolia and Russia (6). In several countries, an IUCN Red List or equivalent assessment has not been undertaken due to resources or a lack of data on wild populations.

Rhodiola has been cultivated in various countries, however, it takes between 5 – 7 years for the rootstock to reach the desired maturation for harvesting (6). Cultivation is increasing but it is not fulfilling the global demand and so wild populations are continuously being harvested. There are also concerns about the adulteration of products on the market. Identification of dried rhizomes of rhodiola is challenging at a species level and can be even more difficult for consumers buying processed products.

An authentication study of Rhodiola rosea products in the UK found that 50% of the supplements tested contained different species of Rhodiola (8). Similar evidence presented in the species proposal has led to the species listing becoming a genus listing proposal as the harvesting and trade of Rhodiola species appears to be indiscriminate.

CITES COP19 will take place in November 2022. If the species proposals are successful, they enter into force three months after the meeting, in this case by the end of February 2023. Researchers have estimated there are at least 30,000 medicinal and aromatic plant species, and 60-90% of these plant species in trade are wild collected (9).

Understanding the use, trade and supply and regeneration of medicinal plants are areas in the herbal plant industry that intersect with this global wildlife trade policy. There is value in herbalists, suppliers, and users of herbal plants to understand and engage with CITES as well as joining efforts and resources for medicinal plant conservation and ensuring these plants are accessible in the future.

1. Allkin R., Patmore K, Black N, Booker A, Canteiro C, Dauncery E, Edwards S, Giovanni P, Howes M-J, Hudson A, Irving I, Leon C, Williken W, Nic Lughadha E, Schippmann U, & Simmonds M. (2017). Medicinal Plants: current resource and future potential. In: State of the Worlds Plants Report, Royal Botanic Gardens. 22–29. https://stateoftheworldsplants.org/
2. POWO (2022). Plants of the World Online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the Internet; http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/ Retrieved 24 August 2022.
3. Herbal Reality. 2022. Rhodiola Rosea. Published on the Internet; https://www.herbalreality.com/herb/rhodiola/. Retrieved 24 August 2022.
4. Cuerrier, A., Tendland, Y., Rapinski, M., 2014. Ethnobotany and Conservation of Rhodiola Species. In: Cuerrier, A., Ampong- Nyarko, K. (Eds.), Rhodiola Rosea. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
5. Brinckmann, J.A., Cunningham, A.B. and Harter, D.E., 2021. Running out of time to smell the roseroots: Reviewing threats and trade in wild Rhodiola rosea L. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 269, p.113710.

United Plant Savers logo is the iconic goldenseal, an American Heritage plant that is threatened due to habitat loss and harvesting pressures on wild populations. United Plant Savers has an At-Risk and a simple to use at-risk tool assessment. The roots can be easily propagated and thus embodies the wisdom of conservation through cultivation. United Plant Savers launched the Hope for Hydrastis project in 2019, a five-year program to cultivate goldenseal with the intention to provide forest farmers planting material to support a transition from wild harvest to cultivated. United Plant Savers also runs the Forest Grown Verified program that verifies farmers who are growing forest botanicals.

It can be practically impossible to know what is going on with wild populations as there are few resources for botanists to monitor populations and the herbal trade is not mandated to report raw materials in trade. What we do know is that the price of goldenseal has increased dramatically and demand far out weights supply. In recent years goldenseal prices for dried root have gone from $40 to over $80 dollars and to the end consumer as much as $100 dollars for just 4 oz, which is $400 a pound.

The conservation status of Goldenseal is complicated, it is CITES (Convention of International Trade of Endangered Species) listed on Appendix 2 and cannot be exported without a permit.  The IUCN reviewed and listed Goldenseal as Vulnerable species and Herbal gram featured a detailed article on the intricate process that resulted in this assessment.

Canada has its own listing as “Threatened” and in the United States each state has its own status of conservation listings as you can see in the image below. The United Plant Savers indicate that this species is under pressure in their native habitats either due to habitat loss by overharvesting for their medicinal and/or ornamental uses. These species face serious pressures for the survival of healthy populations, as a result careful and continual monitoring of these populations is essential with particular focus on trade and supply.

Latin Name: Hydrastis canadensis   

Standard Common Name: Goldenseal 

Other Common Names: yellow puccoon, yellow root  

Additional names: orangeroot, ground raspberry, eyebalm, eyeroot, golden root, Indian dye, Indian turmeric, jaundice root, orange root  French: Hydraste du Canada, Sceau d’or

Family: Ranunculaceae

Botany: Hydrastis canadensis (goldenseal) is an herbaceous perennial yellow rhizome from which 1 to 8 stems grow to 8 to 14 inches. Each stem has 1 to 3 palmate leaves and mature plants produce a single white flower with many stamens and a bright red berry.

Lifespan: Slow-growing herbaceous perennial

Reproductive Age: Reproduction can be clonal or by seed. Seed production begins about 4 to 5 years. Clonal division is more prevalent, and clonally propagated plants may mature earlier than plants started by seed.

Geographic Region and habitat: Deciduous woodland understories and forest edges with moist rich soil having good drainage and a pH of 5.5 to 6.5. Found in Ontario, Canada, and the Eastern United States(Alabama, Arkansas, Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia, Wisconsin). The most populations are found in Ohio, Illinois, Indiana, and eastern Kentucky.

Find out more about this herb and its traditional uses on our goldenseal page.

Ability to withstand disturbance and comments on vegetative reproduction and *obligatory relationships with other organisms if applicable

Overharvesting and habitat loss continue to be the primary threats. Populations on the edges of forests and wetlands thrive and the closing of tree canopy can negatively impact growth. Therefore some very selective human intervention, such as the creation of trails, careful tree thinning, removal of invasive species may be beneficial. There are no known obligatory relationships for reproduction. 

Vulnerability of habitat and noted changes in habitat quality or availability as well as primary threats to habitat

The most significant threats to the plant is overharvesting and loss of habitat.  Most known populations are in decline or stable. 

Part of plant used and impact on recovery, time of year and period for harvest

The rhizome is the primary part used, and is harvested in the autumn after foliar dieback. Studies have shown that there is a correlation between a late harvest allowing larger rhizomes to develop, and the ability of a population to more successfully repopulate the following years. The leaf of the plant is also used.

Demand and relative acreage needed to meet demand

Global trade is controlled by CITES (US Forest Service, 2010). Wild harvest occurs mostly in southern Appalachia and Missouri by small-scale diggers which make up most of the wild-harvesting.

Availability of alternatives or cultivated options

Cultivated goldenseal is commercially available, and makes up most of the commercial market. Goldenseal has several medicinal actions, and there is no one plant that is completely analogous.

However, there are many plants that provide similar actions such as berberine containing species like barberry, Berberis vulgaris.

Recommendations for industry

United Plant Savers recommends that At-Risk plants should be used in cultivated forms whenever possible. Because of pressures facing these plant populations and significant variability in abundance, wild-harvesting should be very limited and carefully monitored.

Any wild harvest of these plants should align with 1) rules established by federal, state and local governments and 2) the sustainable harvest guidelines outlined in individual UpS plant profiles.

Recommendations for home use

United Plant Savers recommends that At-Risk plants should be used in cultivated forms whenever possible. If the transition to entirely cultivated plant materials isn’t immediately possible, a self-regulated goal to reduce the wild-harvested plant materials is strongly encouraged.

To decrease pressure on At-Risk plants, consideration should be given to possible alternatives or analogs to these plants. Limited wild-harvests may be considered if locally abundant populations are identified, populations are closely monitored and harvests are conducted in accordance with federal, state & local regulations and the sustainable harvest guidelines outlined in individual UpS plant monographs.

Canada Federal Species at Risk Act: Threatened

Ontario Provincial Endangered Species Act: Threatened

International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List: Vulnerable; A taxon is Vulnerable when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria A to E for Vulnerable (see Section V), and it is therefore considered to be facing a high risk of extinction in the wild.

CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora): Underground parts (i.e. roots, rhizomes): whole, parts and powdered listed in Appendix II (species not necessarily threatened with extinction, but in which trade must be controlled in order to avoid utilization incompatible with their survival.) Harvest and market controlled by US Fish & Wildlife permits 

NatureServe: Rounded Global Score: Vulnerable (S3); US National Score: Vulnerable (S3); Canada National Score: Imperiled(S2):  State Ranking: Critically Imperiled(S1): Connecticut, Kansas, Massachusetts, Minnesota, New Jersey, Mississippi, Vermont; Imperiled(S2): Ontario(Canada), Alabama, Georgia, Maryland, Michigan, New York; Vulnerable (S3): Delaware, Indiana, Iowa, North Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia(S3S4), Wisconsin(S3S4);  Apparently Secure (S4): Illinois, Kentucky, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Ohio(S4S5); Secure(S5) Missouri; Not Ranked(SNR) Arkansas.   

United Plant Savers: At Risk  Evidence indicates these species are under pressure in their native habitats either due to habitat loss or by overharvesting for their medicinal and/or ornamental uses. These species face serious pressures for the survival of healthy populations, as a result careful and continual monitoring of these populations is essential.

• For an understanding IUCN and Status assesments
• If you want to grow goldenseal, this is a very useful website: Grower Guide from UPS

1.  NatureServe Explorer 2.0. Explorer.natureserve.org. https://explorer.natureserve.org/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.154701/Hydrastis_canadensis. Published 2022. Accessed January 11, 2022.
2. Conservation Assessment For Goldenseal (Hydrastis Canadensis) L. USDA Forest Service, Eastern Region, 2003, www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/fsm91_054345.pdf.

There are currently 24 recognized species of frankincense (of which 6-8 experience significant international trade), which range extensively across Sahelian Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, and into India. Boswellia dalzielii ranges across West Africa, from southern Mali as far east as Cameroon. Boswellia papyrifera begins in northern Cameroon and ranges east to the Red Sea, with the bulk of the trees found in Ethiopia, Sudan and Eritrea. Ethiopia alone hosts six species of Boswellia, including the commercially harvested B. papyrifera, B. rivae and B. neglecta.

Kenya contains extensive areas of B. neglecta and to a much lesser degree B. rivae and B. papyrifera on its northern borders. Somalia claims seven species, including the endemic B. frereana, while the highest known density of Boswellia species is found on tiny Socotra Island, which, despite its small size, hosts eleven endemic species.

Boswellia sacra is found in Oman and mainland Yemen. It also grows in Somalia, where it is known by the synonym B. carteri. India hosts an endemic species (B. ovalifoliolata), as well as the much more commonly known and harvested B. serrata.

While different species of Boswellia trees show marked habitat preferences, most are surprisingly resilient and can grow in a wide range of habitats (see T-1). By and large they are found in arid, harsh, resource-scarce environments where few other species survive. In both Oman and Yemen, and in Somaliland and northern Somalia, B. sacra trees are found in arid wadis (dry riverbeds) and on the limestone or volcanic rocks, particularly of the seaward-facing mountains. As Salah Ajeeb, a Sudanese frankincense expert based in Oman points out, in these regions the little-researched role of mist and fog in producing good quality frankincense is critical.

Here, the trees usually must rely on the oceanic mists and fogs for water and nutrients. In Somalia, the trees often specialize on growing on sheer rock, storing water in bulbous roots, and are seldom found growing roots in soil. By contrast, B. frereana trees prefer even drier lowland conditions on the coastal plain, rarely found in the high-altitude mists that B. sacra prefer. In Oman, the grades of resin (Hojari, Shaabi, Najdi, Shazri) actually refer to four different ecological zones with each grade producing recognizably different types of resin from the same B. sacra species.

Geographers at Sultan Qaboos University in Oman have shown that climate change and deforestation are already having a marked impact on the volume and frequency of mist and fog on the Dhofar coastline. This problem will likely have an ongoing impact both in Oman and in Somalia, as climate change continues.

Species	Main range/Exporting states
Boswellia sacra (syn. B. carteri)	Somalia, Somaliland, Oman (and previously Yemen)
Boswellia frereana	Somalia, Somaliland
Boswellia occulta	Somaliland
Boswellia papyrifera	Sudan, Ethiopia, Eritrea
Boswellia serrata	India
Boswellia dalzielii	Burkina Faso, Nigeria, Mali
Boswellia neglecta	Kenya, Ethiopia, Somalia
Boswellia rivae	Ethiopia, Somaliland, Somalia

Ongoing extensive research on the geography of frankincense on Socotra Island has found that the trees take advantage of these oceanic mists, with specific species tending to inhabit specific zones; several species are found only on cliffs, while the ground-rooted species occupy only specific micro-ranges based on the type of soil. By contrast B. papyrifera, one of the most wide-ranging species, is somewhat less particular about its habitat.

As professor Frans Bongers of Wageningen University and renowned expert on this species points out, although B. papyrifera typically prefers rocky slopes and poor, iron-rich soils, it can be found growing across a range of altitudes, soil types and rainfalls, from the arid Sahel to the comparatively water-rich dry tropical forests.”

In areas with high rainfall, B. papyrifera trees can be found at extraordinary densities, up to 1,100 trees per hectare” points out professor Bongers. The main known populations are in the Nuba Mountains and Jebel Mara in Sudan, Tigray, Amhara and Benishangul-Gumuz provinces of Ethiopia, and northern Eritrea. Both B. dalzielii and B. serrata are similarly hardy species, although they prefer to inhabit dry mixed tropical forests in the West African Sahel and Indian interior, respectively. Both species grow to a considerable size in fertile soils, while being able to grow in a range of soil types.

Researchers at the Tropical Forest Research Institute at Japalpur in Central India point out that B. serrata—unlike most Boswellia—is frost-tolerant and serves as a nurse tree for other species. Although the Deccan plateau of Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra are where most commercial harvesting is undertaken, B. serrata can actually be found much farther south in North East Sri Lanka and Karnataka, and as far north as the Indo Pakistan border in Punjab.

The diversity of frankincense species and chemistry can be confusing for buyers, consumers, formulators, and regulatory experts responsible for establishing standards for frankincense. An urgent review of the differing standards for frankincense in different countries and different industries is required to clarify overlaps and ensure more uniformity. Furthermore, individual species can have multiple distinct chemotypes, which is especially common in commonly traded species such as B. sacra.

As a result, purely botanical DNA-based identification of species may not be the most useful way to classify and develop standards for frankincense essential oils. Rather, classification by both species and chemotype may be needed to provide a whole picture of the origin, type and likely aroma of the essential oil produced.

Furthermore, many studies on the chemistry of frankincense have used commercial samples of resin, purchased outside of Boswellia range states; this makes it difficult to confirm species identify, and clouds the literature. Studies should focus on confirmed samples of resin obtained where it was harvested.

Even though traded and used for centuries, in the last 20 years there have been new discoveries in the field of frankincense; new species have been described, new chemotypes discovered, and new sources of unique aromas found. Many of these recent developments have emerged because of improved technologies for identification and analysis as well as novel methods of monitoring resin harvests and transport. These new methods are helping scientists overturn many long-held misconceptions and correct much inaccurate and misleading information about frankincense, its properties and habitat.

In the last 20 years, several new species have been described, such as B. disocoridis, B. bullata, B. aspleniifolia, and B. samhaensis from the tiny island of Socotra Island in the Indian Ocean; B. occulta and B. globosa from Somaliland; and B. madagascariensis was removed from Boswellia and transferred to its own genus, Ambilobea. Boswellia occulta in particular is interesting because this species produces a unique methoxyalkane-dominant aroma unlike that of any other known essential oil.

Recent work by professor Amadé Ouédraogo in Burkina Faso has done much to increase interest in B. dalzielii—a previously largely ignored West African Boswellia species—which has just been found to possess an alpha-pinene dominant oil that aligns very well with current commercialized species and chemotypes.

Given the vast, remote and inhospitable habitat that Boswellia thrives in, we suspect that more species and chemotypes will soon be discovered as interest in the plant grows and survey techniques improve. Furthermore, work on hybridization by scientists like Jason Eslamieh, in California will result in several new types of frankincense emerging with special olfactory and agroecological features. Although these new developments are indeed exciting and interesting, one cannot help but note that the vast majority of R&D into new aromas and value-added frankincense products is done in places like USA, Europe and China far from the site of the harvesting and collection.

New trends in trade

As with all commodities, trends change. The traditional Arab market for frankincense for chewing use and for such functions as fumigating clothes and in traditional medicine has declined due to Western-style education and economic growth. While the practice of burning incense, particularly on special occasions, does not seem to have declined much, in the cities, traditional incense burners are being replaced with air fresheners and electrically operated diffusers. Modern alcohol-based perfumes using frankincense oil and extracts are largely replacing traditional attars, and home-prepared bokhuur (fragrant incense balls) and uunsi (prepared incense).

While use of frankincense at mosques and many Christian churches has been consistent, incense represents a declining percentage of the overall global trade in frankincense resin. Please see F-1 for an estimated breakdown of the global resin market. In particular, three major new markets have emerged in the last 20 years:

Cosmetic and skin care products

Use in frankincense oils and extracts has boomed during this period. Companies like UK-based Lush Cosmetics and Neal’s Yard Remedies produce an increasingly wide range of products using frankincense resin extracts in various forms.

Aromatherapy and spa and wellness

This sector has seen spectacular growth. Frankincense is one of the top oils used by aromatherapists and multi-level market giants like doTERRA and Young Living have set up their own supply chains for this raw material, reportedly using dozens of tonnes of frankincense oil a year. These two companies alone have recently become some of the largest buyers of the resin and oil in the world.

Boswellic acid extracts

The other growing new market are chemical extracts from the resin, particularly Boswellic acids, which are non-volatile components of frankincense in varying amounts. Through a few human clinical trials and many in vitro and rodent trials, Boswellic acids and related chemical components have been shown to have high medical potential in the treatment of such conditions as rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, low back pain, soft tissue rheumatism, myositis, fibrositis, chronic colitis, ulcerative colitis, Crohn’s disease, bronchial asthma and peritumoral brain edemas.

Medicinal uses of frankincense

Frankincense resin have been used medicinally for thousands of years both locally wherever they grow, and in major ethno-medical systems like Ayurveda and Traditional Chinese Medicine. The resins have been used, in various formulations, for ailments as diverse as neurological issues, inflammatory conditions, gastrointestinal issues, treatment of wounds, oral health, rheumatism, venereal diseases, etc.

Modern scientific studies have upheld many of these therapeutic properties, although most studies have been conducted in vitro rather than in clinical settings; indeed, the number of well-controlled clinical trials using frankincense or frankincense products is very small. A few major properties of frankincense include:

Antimicrobial, Antifungal, and Antiviral activity

There is strong evidence of the antimicrobial and antifungal activity of all species of frankincense studied. Both the resin and the essential oil appear to be effective against a wide range of microorganisms. Interestingly, different species of frankincense appear to combat different types of pathogens better. For instance, B. sacra syn B. carteri and B. serrata are more effective against Pseudomonas aeruginosa (1)than B. rivae, but the latter combats Escherichia coli more effectively than the formers.

However, these studies have almost all been conducted in vitro rather than in vivo; it likely acts as an effective topical antibiotic but we cannot assume it would have similar actions when ingested or otherwise applied. There is some evidence that frankincense has antiviral effects, although the number of studies focusing on this is relatively small.

Anti-inflammatory activity

A variety of studies have found anti-inflammatory effects of frankincense (2). These effects have largely been attributed to the boswellic acids (pentacyclic triterpenes) and incensole acetate in the resins. Extracts containing these compounds have been shown to effectively treat inflammatory conditions, especially at relatively high doses.

Almost all of these studies have been done on rats and mice, however; the majority of human clinical trials have had some reason to be skeptical of the results (not reporting all data, no replication, small sample sizes, funding not disclosed, etc.). Still, the small number of methodologically sound human clinical studies have indicated clinical effectiveness of Boswellia extracts with no major safety issues.

Potential anti-cancer properties

Boswellia extracts have shown some promise against cancer cells in vitro (3), and a number of studies in vivo in mice have shown promise in prolonging survival time and either decreasing tumor size or preventing increases, with no systemic toxicities reported. However, there have been no human clinical trials, and as a result we cannot speculate about the efficacy of Boswellia against cancer in a clinical setting.

Frankincense, particularly frankincense essential oil, has been promoted as a miracle cancer cure, despite the fact that the active components (boswellic acids) are not present in the essential oil. Claims such as these were part of the driver for the explosion in popularity of frankincense essential oil over the past 15 years.

CNS activity

Studies in mice and rats have supported the existence of anti-anxiety and anti-depressant effects of frankincense, particularly of incensole acetate, present in significant amounts in B. papyrifera. These effects seem to be mediated through action affecting the TRPV3 channels, which are known to be associated with the feeling of warmth in humans. Frankincense also seems to have analgesic and sedative properties, although these are not thought to be related to the TRPV3 channels. There is also mixed evidence from studies on mice that have indicated frankincense may have a neuroprotective effect and could limit neural damage after head injuries (4).

Safety and bioavailability

Topical application of Boswellia extracts appears to be effective for skin conditions, and oral consumption of resin may be effective for gastrointestinal conditions. However, oral ingestion does not seem to translate into frankincense components being seen in the blood.

There seem to be minimal safety issues with the use of frankincense, although high doses of extracts may cause minor gastrointestinal issues (diarrhea, nausea, abdominal pain) and topical application of undiluted essential oil or extracts can cause contact dermatitis and skin sensitization. Ingestion of essential oil is not recommended as it can cause burns of the esophagus or stomach. However, serious or life-threatening conditions are not generally reported.

Frankincense has been traded globally for thousands of years and constitutes one of the oldest globalized commodities. The original markets were in Egypt and Mesopotamia, sourcing resins from the Land of Punt, which is believed to be centered in modern-day Eritrea, Somalia, and/or southern Arabia. As Nigel Groom points out, trade in the Classical era was largely centered on the Arabian Peninsula, the Red Sea and the ancient Nabatean trade routes across the Empty Quarter to Makka, Jersusalem, Petra and on to Aleppo and Baghdad.

It was not until the advent and growth of Christianity that the European market developed and the opening up of the Chinese market was largely due to bravery of Omani seamen and explorers like Marco Polo who established trade routes from India and Arabia to China more than 400 hundred years ago. Today the markets in Asia have grown while North America has also been added to the traditional Middle Eastern markets.

Trade in Boswellia Papyrifera

B. papyrifera is the major source of resin for incense in Europe and orthodox churches in Ethiopia, Egypt and beyond. Due to low essential oil yields of between 1-2% and its rather unusual chemistry (dominated by octyl acetate rather than terpenes) the resin traditionally has been traded more for incense than for essential oil use; although this is beginning to change, the vast majority still goes to incense or boswellic acid extraction.

Boswellia papyrifera is supplied primarily from Ethiopia, Sudan and Eritrea. Eritrea was the main supplier of this type until well into the 20th century, but the decline in tree population and increasing demand have shifted the bulk of the trade to Ethiopia and Sudan. Today, Eritrea supplies less than 450 tonnes per year; Ethiopian exports are often 10 times this number. Trade numbers for Sudan have been elusive, but estimates are consistently lower than Ethiopian numbers although much Sudanese resin is undoubtedly sent across the border to be exported through Ethiopian companies.

This may be changing, though, as many of the Ethiopian production areas have become mired in the current Tigray war and exports are reported to have sharply declined. The main market for this type of resin is in China where it is used in traditional medicine and more recently for incense. In addition, Indian extractors of Boswellic acids like Indfrag Biosciences and Alchem have been using Sudanese sources of resin for some years as B. serrata resin has become increasingly scarce.

Trade in Boswellia Sacra (Oman/Yemen)

Despite the classification of Omani, Yemeni and Somalian B. sacra as being the same species, the markets and trade routes are quite different. Once a major source of frankincense in antiquity, Oman and Yemen now play a relatively small, specialized role in the global frankincense trade. Yemen was traditionally the major trade route for frankincense, both from Oman as well as resin coming from Africa through Aden and Red Sea ports.

Today, the ongoing civil war has all but eliminated both harvest and trade in Yemen. Virtually all legitimate trade is from Oman, where a few hundred tonnes of resin are harvested each year.

To encourage local value addition, the Oman government has recently placed restrictions on the export of crude resin, leading to a number of high-quality local distilleries. The majority of essential oils produced in Oman is exported for use in the European cosmetic or U.S aromatherapy sector.

However, a recent survey by the Environmental Society of Oman showed that despite government controls, a significant amount of resin is being exported by road to the Emirates for local use and export trade. Quantities are generally unrecorded as bags of resin are usually taken by car or small vans.

The fact that the Oman government is stable and secure and has moreover made some strides towards developing sustainable supply chains for its frankincense has meant that several U.S and European companies including Young Living, doTERRA and Neal’s Yard Remedies have in the last few years switched some of their sourcing to Oman. This trend may accelerate in the coming years.  

Trade in B. sacra (syn. B. carteri) (Somaliland/Somalia)

The classic frankincense of choice for perfumery, B. sacra from Somalia was traditionally shipped through Aden in Yemen to markets in Europe and later to China. Although this oil is still used in perfumery, a significant portion of Somalian B. sacra essential oil is now used in aromatherapy. This trade has grown significantly from ~200 tonnes in 1987 to an estimated 2,000+ tonnes in 2018. With just a few companies driving large scale demand, most resins are shipped from Somaliland or Somalia to Dubai, Europe, the United States and Kenya for distillation.

North America is the current major market for aromatherapy products, although the Asian market is expected to grow significantly in the coming years. Despite the fact that both France and Italy have been active in the Horn of Africa for over a century, few essential oil distilleries or extraction facilities exist in the region. Almost all the resin from this area is distilled in France, the UK, Dubai, Kenya, or more recently Bulgaria and India.

In addition to the higher carbon footprint required of shipping large bulk resin rather than the extracts ultimately desired, this approach robs range states of value added secondary manufacturing and the tax revenue and jobs that come with it. This approach follows the same neocolonial standard of raw resource extraction at low prices that has inhibited economic progress in developing nations.

Trade in Boswellia frereana

The majority of B. frereana is used for chewing purposes and for special types of incense. Boswellia frereana is seldom use for distillation or extraction, being expensive and generally limited in supply. Nevertheless there is a growing awareness in the west of this so called “King of Frankincense” and several American and European companies now stock it. Boswellia frereana is also known as Coptic frankincense and is used in the Coptic Churches of Egypt and Ethiopia and elsewhere.

But as Nigel Groom points out in his classic 1981 historical treatise, the vast majority has traditionally been sold in Saudi Arabia for use by pilgrims going to Mecca for Haj. The traditional trade route was across the Red Sea to Yemeni ports and then to Jeddah and Makka. Due to the civil war, Dubai and Jeddah have to some extent replaced these Yemeni ports as the entry points into the Arabian market.

Trade in Boswellia serrata

High in a-thujene and so less aromatically desirable than some of the other frankincense types, some of the resin from B. serrata is exported from India to the Chinese and other markets, but the majority is either locally distilled as a inexpensive essential oil or solvent-extracted for the production of Boswellic acid used in herbal supplements sold around the world.

These supplements have become of increasing interest in Europe, where a human clinical trial showed that a topical application helped reduce arthritic pain; B. serrata is the only species of Boswellia approved for use as a herbal supplement within the European Union. Recent reports by IUCN and several Indian conservation agencies, however, indicate that the increased demand for B. serrata for use in Ayurvedic medicine in Asia and the herbal industry in Europe and North America may be resulting in threats to these populations.

Some attempts at cultivation have taken place in India and CSIR, and other research centers are working on methods of enhancing resin yield from existing wild harvest trees, but the problem of sustainability remains.

Frankincense is an ancient product used in the Catholic and Orthodox Church

While frankincense is indeed a product used in church, its use is far more extensive and multidimensional. Frankincense is part of religious ceremonies worldwide, is used as modern and traditional medicine and aromatherapy, as a cosmetic and fragrance ingredient, as a preservative and purifier as well as many other household applications throughout the world.

Frankincense is from Arabia

One species of Boswellia, B. sacra, grows in Arabia. While the resin from this region has been harvested for generations, the vast majority of frankincense today comes from North Africa and India, especially Ethiopia and Somalia with Sudan and West Africa as emerging sources. B. sacra syn carteri (see below) and B. frereana grow only in Somalia.

There is Boswellic acid in frankincense essential oil

Boswellic acids are non-volatile pentacyclic triterpenes, meaning that they are too large and heavy to be in essential oil. Extracts may contain Boswellic acids, but essential oils cannot and do not contain any of these heavy molecules.

The highest quality frankincense is from Oman, Somalia, etc…

Most regions that harvest Boswellia trees claim to possess “the best” frankincense. Quality, however, is subjective. The different species have dramatically different chemotypes and aroma profiles; B. papyrifera smells nothing like B. serrata; while B. frereana and B. sacra are also quite distinct, etc. The highest quality frankincense is the one which best fits the needs of the consumer be it for fragrance, chewing, cosmetic or medicinal purposes.

Frankincense essential oil can treat cancer and many other diseases

Frankincense has never been used to successfully treat cancer in a clinical setting. A small number of in vitro and rodent trials have shown some degree of cytotoxicity, but these are small, preliminary studies on cells in a petri dish. Boswellic acid has shown promise as an anti-tumoral agent, but frankincense essential oils do not contain Boswellic acids. Furthermore, despite seemingly endless claims for the health benefits of frankincense; from depression to infertility there are, until now, no well-structured human clinical trials to support these claims.

B. carteri and B. sacra…which is which?

Boswellia carteri is officially recognized as a synonym of B. sacra with B. sacra referred by botanists as now the “official” name. Nevertheless, both are still commonly used for several reasons, not least of which is that they each tend to have unique scent and chemical profiles. Boswellia carteri is used to refer to the populations of B. sacra growing in Somaliland and Somalia, while B. sacra are used to refer to the Arabian populations.

There is a species called B. thurifera

There is no officially recognized species called B. thurifera. The name was used to refer to several different species but today is recognized as an outdated synonym of B. serrata.

Frankincense is sustainably harvested by generations of tappers who carefully manage the trees

Despite the romantic “camel caravan” imagery, many of the places frankincense trees grow are in insecure areas where populations live in extreme poverty. While an overall independent assessment remains to be done, declines in some species have been reported due to a raft of complex interdependent factors, including fire, land conversion, unclear ownership, grazing animals, and over-tapping due to increased global demand, and a lack of additional income streams.

Recent work on B. papyrifera in Ethiopia suggests that without dramatic changes in stewardship and harvesting practices, in some areas, the trees may be extinct within 20-30 years. While this does not seem to be the case with most species, it highlights the importance of conducting additional research.

Boswellia cannot be cultivated

Most species of Boswellia are in fact relatively easy to cultivate and will grow readily from either cuttings or seedlings. Both government and private sector nurseries exists in Oman and while investment in frankincense cultivation has been surprisingly limited, modern drip irrigated frankincense plantations are currently found in both Oman and the USA!

Organic certification means the resin is harvested sustainably

Organic certification does not guarantee either the purity or sustainability of frankincense. Many commercial “organically labelled” B. carteri essential oils were shown recently to contain a mix of species, including the newly-discovered B. occulta. Organic certification simply refers to the fact that artificial fertilisers and pesticides have not been used in cultivation and no synthetic chemicals were applied during the processing of the resin.

The gum resin of the Boswellia. Species mainly consists of polysaccharide gum, resinous di- and triterpenic acids, and volatile oil with different proportions of constituents that vary from species to species.

The volatile oils (essential oils) of the oleo-gum-resins are largely composed of terpenes. Most commonly, the essential oils are dominated by a-pinene or a-thujene, with minor components also prominent such as limonene, myrcene, sabinene, p-cymene, terpinen-4-ol, b -caryophyllene or viridiflorol.

Researchers at the University of Wageningen, University of Nizwa and elsewhere have discovered that the gum resins of B. serrata, B. papyrifera, and B. sacra (syn B. carteri) contain different combinations of bioactive pentacyclic triterpenic acids, namely a-Boswellic acids, b-Boswellic acids, g-Boswellic acid, acetyl-b-Boswellic acid, 11-keto-b-Boswellic acid (KBA), acetyl-11-keto-b-Boswellic acid (AKBA), and tetracyclic triterpenic acids like tirucallic acids viz 3-oxotirucallic acid, 3-hydroxytirucallic acid, and 3-acetoxytirucallic acid.

Other oleo gum resin compounds which display biological activities are: betulinic acid, lupenoic acid, epi-lupeol, isoincensole, isoincensole acetate and 1-ursene-2-diketone-incensole acetate along with few other terpenes. It should be noted that Boswellic acids are not found in the distilled volatile oils.

Even relatively minor differences in the chemical profiles of the essential oils, especially in the heavier sesquiterpenes can yield significantly different aroma profiles—two different B. sacra essential oils can smell completely different! At least two Boswellia species have very different constituents to the B. sacra, B. dalzielii, B. serrata, B. neglecta group, namely B. papyrifera, which produces essential oils rich in octyl acetate and octanol, and B. occulta, which produces methoxyalkanes such as methoxydecane and methoxyoctane.]

While the demand for frankincense has been rising, few journalists writing about this product are aware of the often exploitative conditions under which this product is harvested, stored, graded and shipped. Yet the fact is that much of the frankincense used in the fragrance and cosmetic industry comes from areas where war, drought, famine and political instability have become the norm, and where claims of ethical and sustainable sourcing are often a far cry from reality.

It is important to remember that there are no universal truths in frankincense; although it is often treated like a homogenous entity, the different species of Boswellia are spread across many different environments and social, political, and economic contexts.

Some supply chains are better than others, and some resins are sustainably sourced while others are not. Frankincense in many areas is in a “conservation through use” context, where the economic value of the trade in frankincense resin prevents the trees from being subject to more destructive uses such as bark stripping, charcoaling, and land conversion for agriculture. It is also a critical source of income and livelihood for hundreds of thousands of people.

As a result, we’re not arguing against the use or trade of frankincense. But it doesn’t help to ignore or hide from problems either. Truly supporting frankincense means acknowledging the issues that exist in many of the supply chains and working to implement real, workable, scalable solutions to these challenges (see below). Below we elaborate on some of the challenges frankincense faces.

Instability and supply chain disruptions

Over the past 30 years, African supply chains have experienced repeated disruptions. Throughout the 1980s and into the 1990s, Ethiopia dealt with a near-perpetual state of war against multiple popular uprisings, especially in Tigray and Eritrea, two major production areas for frankincense.

A new war in Tigray began in late 2020, and has since destabilized large portions of the frankincense production areas in Ethiopia and Eritrea. Ethiopia has also seen disruptions in the production system as a result of political decision making; prior to 2018, much of the production of B. papyrifera frankincense took place in concessions leased, controlled, and operated by private companies.

This allowed a relatively high level of centralized control over the types of harvesting and land management practices used. In 2018 and after, however, the government began shifting towards promoting local cooperatives over private concessions. While a positive idea in theory, these cooperatives were often formed from villages and people with no history or training in frankincense harvesting, and did not have the same kinds of training and monitoring that concession workers had access to.

As a result, production is reported to have dropped significantly, with poorer harvesting practices commonly observed. Part of this is due to the political movement to remove Tigrayans (the incumbent ethnic group controlling much of the government) and replace them with Oromo personnel (a long-disadvantaged ethnic group), which led to the removal of many experienced foresters. Still, Ethiopia has a relatively high level of qualified forestry personnel.

The Second Sudanese Civil War raged for even longer, from the 1980s until 2005, largely centered in frankincense production areas. Somalia, for its part, still represents a deeply conflicted and dangerous place, although the situation in Somaliland is somewhat stable. In civil war from 1988-1991, much of the country fell into chaos and warlord-ruled anarchy afterwards, and is still plagued by ineffectual government, warlords and terrorism.

The frankincense-producing areas of northern Somalia were partitioned following the war into the territory of the autonomous Puntland region of Somalia, and the self-declared independent Republic of Somaliland. Much of the divided Sanaag region is claimed by both sides, with periodic border clashes. Occasional inter-tribal skirmishes and extreme skepticism of outsiders further increases the opacity of the frankincense territories.

Multiple terrorist factions, most prominently the Al-Qaida- allied Al-Shabaab and the notorious Islamic State, have established theaters of support and operation in the northern mountains of Puntland, some of which are in territories that produce frankincense. Somaliland is more stable, especially in the areas west of the regional capital of Erigavo, but it still suffers from a lack of centralized governance.

The harvesting areas are largely under local control of the clans that traditionally inhabit those areas, while the central government has few resources or ability to enforce regulations. An independent Somaliland Gums & Resins Agency was created in 2017, but it was dissolved and placed as a department under the Ministry of Commerce in 2018 amidst concerns of corruption by private business interests.

Instability in Sudan has been longstanding. The ultimate partition of Sudan and South Sudan drew a national border directly through the range of the Boswellia trees, with Sudan emerging as the major supplier. The recent fall of the Sudanese government threw further complications into the trade.

In all three major production regions of Blue Nile, south Kordofan and Darfur, war and fighting are significant issues. There are poor access roads and little ability to discern where resins come from or the conditions under which they were produced. Lack of any kind of data or statistical records means that data on resin harvest and trade has been all but non-existent for many years.

In West Africa, where B. dalzielii may become an important source of frankincense in the future, insurgencies and political instability currently plague the main producing regions of northern Nigeria, and the border regions of Burkina Faso and Mali. In Nigeria, Boko Haram has taken a heavy toll, especially in the northern provinces, and riots and kidnappings are common. In Burkina Faso, perennial insurgent activities along the borders with Mali and Niger are common.

However, these areas have a relatively high level of governance and government capacity to enforce forestry regulations. Burkina Faso in particular has strong governmental and academic infrastructure, with significant forestry experience due to the shea industry and extensive reforestation/replanting initiatives. Mali experiences similar insurgent activity, especially from Islamist insurgents in the north, although this only affects part of the frankincense production areas. These situations are fluid, with the particular areas affected and outlooks changing from year to year.

These situations also raise the question of whether frankincense [resource curse] is in itself linked to violence. Many of the belligerent groups operating in frankincense territories are local insurgencies, relying on a variety of revenue sources such as charcoal exports, local “taxes”, etc. In these scenarios, frankincense may provide a source of revenue either directly or indirectly, although this varies from place to place.

In Yemen it is not significant but in parts of Somalia it certainly is. Furthermore, in active conflict zones such Somalia and Sudan, some unscrupulous generalist traders will trade in frankincense and anything else they can profit off of, such as guns or narcotics.

Khat is increasingly an epidemic in the harvesting regions in Somalia, often paid for by frankincense; in some areas trucks drive into villages loaded with khat, and drive out loaded with frankincense (something we have personally observed). Although frankincense in these cases is not the cause of conflict, it can be an important source of income for groups that are actively engaged in conflict activities. As a result, traceability and monitoring are critical to ensuring that resin is being sourced ethically. 

Sustainability challenges

In the last 10 years, multiple studies have emerged indicating sustainability challenges facing many species of frankincense. Almost all species of Boswellia face some combination of five major types of threats, although which threats are present or critical is different for each species and sometimes vary from area to area. As a result, it’s important to assess each species and local context separately.

Fire

Many frankincense grow in dry woodlands, where seasonal grasses are prone to catching fire in the dry season. This is particularly true for the B. papyrifera trees in Ethiopia, Sudan, and Eritrea. Here, fires are often set intentionally by the harvesters, to burn away long grasses and suppress biting flies and insects. While adult trees may have some resilience to low-intensity fire, these events kill seedlings and young trees, suppressing regeneration.

Grazing

Grazing animals such as goats, cattle, and camels are particularly fond of frankincense leaves, and often share the environments in which these trees are found. In areas such as Ethiopia, the grazing pressure is intense enough to suppress all regeneration. In some areas of Oman, grazing suppresses flowering and seed production (although this may be confined to flat areas which camels can reach).

Over-harvesting

Intensive or improper harvesting techniques cause damage to frankincense trees. Deep cuts expose the heartwood, making it easy for boring beetles and other insects to attack the tree. Intensive tapping also reduces the carbon reserves of the tree, inhibiting reproduction by reducing the viability of seeds.

This only applies to trees that are actively tapped, though; species like B. neglecta and B. rivae, which are not tapped but where the resin is simply gathered from natural self-exudations, do not experience this pressure. Boswellia dalzielii is traditionally harvested for bark rather than resin; in this case, tapping for resin actually reduces the harvesting pressure on the tree as resin tapping is less damaging than bark harvesting.

Land conversion

Some species of frankincense grow in areas suitable for agriculture. This is the case with species such as Boswellia papyrifera, B. serrata, and B. dalzielii. Areas of natural forest are often cleared of trees to allow planting of crops like sorghum, maize, cotton, and sesame. Other species, like B. sacra in Oman, may be threatened by other forms of land conversion such as mining activity (they grow in areas unsuitable for agriculture but suitable for gravel mining).

Biological threats (insect attack, invasive species, etc.)

Many species of frankincense are subject to attacks by boring beetles, which may be fatal to the tree. This is commonly seen in B. papyrifera, B. sacra (syn. B. carteri), and B. frereana. This threat interacts with overharvesting in that high levels of harvesting make the tree more susceptible to insect damage. Additionally, in some parts of India, B. serrata is being crowded out by the invasive shrub Lantana camara. In northern Ethiopia, mistletoes also parasitize the B. papyrifera trees, although it is unclear how much this affects them.

Inequities in the distribution of benefits of the trade

It is important to remember that, while frankincense is a unique genus of tree and a valuable medicinal and aromatic product, it is also a livelihood for tens or hundreds of thousands of people across its range. Indeed, in 2016 the UN FAO estimated that 225,000 people in Somaliland and Somalia derived the majority of their income from frankincense or frankincense-related work.

Tellingly, it was reported that it was the poorest families who were the most dependent on the resins. While the exact number of people who rely on frankincense for their income is unknown, the point is clear: frankincense is intertwined as a way of life for hundreds or thousands of communities.

Despite the boom in popularity of frankincense, however, the vast majority of economic benefits have not reached harvesters or their communities. The lion’s share of the export value is taken up by local middlemen, traders, and exporters, while most value addition takes place outside of range states and the retail value of the finished products is almost exclusively concentrated outside of range states in Europe, North America, and East Asia.

This is due to the traditional extraction model where frankincense has been purchased from range states for the lowest possible prices for years. As a result, the amount paid to harvesters may be as little as 1-2% of the retail value of the resin or essential oil. The women who sort the frankincense resins are paid even less.

At the same time, there has been little effort to invest in these communities or support infrastructure such as education, alternative income, etc. Harvesting communities are particularly vulnerable to manipulation and economic abuse as well, as the traditional system often involves taking resin on credit and/or making some of the payment in the form of food.

In Somaliland and Somalia, for instance, there are numerous accusations that at least one exporter has failed to pay for the resin they’ve taken. This exporter has been embroiled in multiple lawsuits (some of which are ongoing) worth hundreds of thousands of dollars each over unpaid bills.

Consequently, many harvesting communities remain mired in poverty despite the ultimate value of the product they handle, a situation sadly not uncommon in wild-harvested plants and non-timber forest products. This is concerning both from a humanitarian point of view, but also from a conservation point of view—a critical component of ensuring successful long-term conservation-through-use is that economic benefits reach producers and their communities, and that these benefits incentivize conservation of the species.

Perhaps the most critical challenge to the sustainability of the resin trade is the opacity of the supply chains and the lack of traceability or monitoring of where and how resin is produced. Instability in many areas and resistance by embedded interests have made it difficult to access the source of some frankincense resins, do in-depth assessments of the full range and status of the trees or to make traceability an easy option.

The origins of many resins on the market remain opaque, a situation with which many companies seem content. Conflicts may also disrupt production and the trade routes used to move the resins.

With international market demand greater than ever before, this opacity puts the frankincense trees at risk. Sustainable management, by definition, requires trading one-time, short-term gains for long-term, continuous gains; for this to work, the harvesters need to be sure that they will have continuous, long-term access to the resource. In conflict situations, this assurance is less likely.

This lack of transparency gives space to unscrupulous actors in the supply chain who prefer greenwashing and empty claims to actually following through with ethical practices. As long as this opacity remains, companies can claim they pay fairly and harvest sustainably, because there’s no way to prove differently. This also explains why some companies claim transparency isn’t possible, despite the initiatives currently underway (see Case Study of blockchain, below).

Solutions to create a sustainable future for frankincense

Despite these challenges, a sustainable and regenerative future for frankincense is possible. Despite the discouragement by those with a vested interest in maintaining the opacity of these supply chains, there are a variety of ways to promote regenerative sourcing of frankincense. Is it easy? No. Is it possible? Yes.  

Traceability and transparency

Lifting the veil of secrecy that surrounds frankincense production in many areas is the critical first step to ensuring long-term sustainability in these supply chains. Ensuring proper traceability means that the trees producing the resin a company uses can be monitored for their health or for any interventions needed; it allows buyers to ensure that they are partnering with the same producing communities to create long-term stability; it opens opportunities to confirm how much harvesters are being paid and that claims of community development support are being followed through on.

The opacity that currently exists makes it difficult for companies and consumers who care to ensure they are having a positive impact, it prevents resources and benefits from the trade from being distributed fairly, and provides cover to bad actors who use exploitative and abusive practices and attempt to greenwash their actions.

Case Study: Blockchain for transparency in frankincense supply chains

Ensuring transparency in natural product supply chains is no easy task, especially when products are sources in developing, conflict-prone areas. However, technologies like blockchain help meet this challenge by providing an incorruptible platform to document the operations of the supply chain. Blockchain traceability is currently being deployed in the Boswellia sacra syn. carteri and myrrh (Commiphora myrrha) supply chains in Somaliland by FairSource Botanicals and a consortium of companies such as Lush Cosmetics and Pacha Soap Co.

This provides a platform to upload and verify data, allowing the capture of information such as resin origin (village and harvesting site), movement of resin through the supply chain, purchase of the resin (who is being paid and how much), documented payments via a common mobile banking platform, contributions to community development funds, as well as sustainability information such as photos of individual trees, survey data, etc.

This process allows buyers and users of frankincense and myrrh to confirm that the resins and oils have been ethically sourced. This is especially critical considering the concerns about overharvesting and accusations of non-payment against certain exporters.

For instance, by using a mobile banking platform called Zaad rather than cash payments (a common practice in the harvesting regions anyways), digital payment records can be generated and preserved on the blockchain, to demonstrate that payments were made on time, in full, to the correct people (not to middlemen). Implementing this system means buyers can demand proof of good practices and can hold their suppliers accountable.    

The advantages of blockchain are that it is flexible and scalable—it can be used as widely across the supply chain as needed, can accommodate virtually any type of information, and can be implemented regardless of the current status of the supply chain’s traceability, accommodating ongoing incremental improvements. In other words, it offers suppliers and buyers a way to see what the current practices are, identify where the gaps exist, and then ensure they are addressed by holding suppliers accountable.

Of course, blockchain is simply a platform to document practices, not a standard of practice itself. In other words, it allows buyers to see information about the supply chain, but doesn’t itself set a standard for what that information should reveal about the practices. As a result, it is valuable to have third-party oversight to ensure that the practices being revealed by the blockchain meet a standard of good practice.

There is also the potential to tie in a transparency platform like blockchain with certification standards such as FairWild (see below) to expand the application of this standard and be able to audit more remote/inaccessible areas. Blockchain doesn’t mean the system is perfect, but it creates the transparency that is the critical first step to ensuring ethical practices are followed.

Some companies have insisted that it’s not possible to implement blockchain in frankincense, possibly out of concern that transparency may reveal poor practices in their supply chains, but it is important to remember that the point of traceability and transparency isn’t to prove who is good and who is bad, but rather to gauge the current status of supply chain practices and determine how to improve and upscale positive impacts going forward. This is something that all companies should embrace.

Long-term commitment to harvesting communities and cooperatives

Sustainability emerges when the people harvesting and managing the trees are able to give up some production in the short term, in order to ensure production over the long-term (i.e. harvesting less resin today to ensure there will be resin available next year).

Achieving this means building meaningful, long-term relationships with harvesting communities, offering them fair, multi-year partnerships to ensure they have stable income and a reliable market for their products.

It also means investing in these communities to achieve development goals; many frankincense harvesting communities are among the poorest of the poor, and many in places like Somaliland and Somalia are primarily dependent on frankincense for their livelihoods. Investments in education, alternative income opportunities, water and food security, etc., can provide additional stability and help reduce the community’s dependence on resin harvesting, in turn helping create the conditions for sustainability.

Furthermore, there should be specific attention given to the women’s cooperatives that clean and sort the frankincense resin. Efforts should focus on ensuring fair pay, protective equipment such as masks and gloves, safe and healthy working conditions, and ideally opportunities to support education, health care, etc. 

Monitoring and locally-appropriate support for trees

Establishing full traceability in the supply chain allows companies to identify the harvesting sites and trees that are producing their resin. In turn, this allows monitoring to confirm the harvesting and management practices being used, and whether those practices are affecting the health or stability of the local tree population.

By knowing what is happening in the specific areas they are sourcing, companies can craft locally-tailored sustainability solutions that meet the needs of those specific areas. For instance, establishing nurseries and protecting seedlings may be important in areas where regeneration is poor.

On the other hand, price incentives and harvesting trainings may be more important in areas where regeneration is fine but there is a high intensity of harvesting. In this way, enhanced traceability and monitoring greatly improve the efficiency of sustainability interventions, by targeting resources where they are most needed.

Role of technology and certifications

Modern technology provides the opportunity to gather a wealth of data on the supply chain. Smartphones and GPS are ubiquitous and inexpensive, allowing documentation of harvesting sites, photos, and the ability to document practices using blockchain-enabled apps. Data capture in the field is almost never perfect, but even relatively modest investments in equipment and training can enable suppliers and buying companies to begin to build up a more detailed picture of their supply chain.

Certifications are also a tool to ensure resin sourcing is meeting a certain standard of practice. Organic certification has been used in many frankincense supply chains, but evidence from Somaliland, where certified organic B. sacra syn. B. carteri oils were found to be heavily contaminated with oil from the visually, geographically, and chemically very distinct B. occulta, suggests that it is not sufficient on its own.

FairWild is a much higher standard of practice, incorporating strict environmental and social standards of practices based on the ISSC-MAP standards for wild plant collection, and is considered the gold standard for sustainable wild plant collection. This standard has been used to certify a small amount of frankincense production in Kenya and Somaliland.

However, the requirement for annual in-person field site visits by an outside auditor limit the places where it can be used, especially in species where many or most collection sites are either very remote or inaccessible due to security concerns (for instance, in Somaliland and Somalia). In these cases, certifications and technologies like blockchain may be able to work synergistically to collect data in more remote areas and confirm practices against a certification standard.

Role of international regulation: CITES for frankincense?

As a result of the increased scrutiny of sustainability challenges in Boswellia supply chains in recent years, there is currently an ongoing review of whether these species meet the criteria for listing under CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).

CITES is an international agreement that limits trade if species are determined to be under severe threat. Species are classified into three appendices depending on the severity of the threat: Appendix I means no commercial trade, Appendix II requires export permits, and Appendix III requires a certificate of origin.

Of course, this assumes that the state of export is capable of effectively implementing the regulations, and that reducing trade will translate into enhanced conservation outcomes. While this may be true in some frankincense range states, there are serious questions about whether it would be appropriate across the board. Many frankincense range states have fragile or limited governance; of the top ten most corrupt countries in the world in 2020 (according to Transparency International’s Corruption Perceptions Index), four are frankincense range states (Somalia, South Sudan, Yemen, Sudan), and only three exporting states rank above 40/100 points (Oman, India, and Burkina Faso).

In the case of Somalia, it is currently under a trade suspension and is not able to issue permits at this time. Thus, it begs the question if a listing of Boswellia species in Somaliland or Somalia occurs, would it function as a de facto trade ban? It’s also important to note that while overharvesting is a factor affecting some Boswellia species, trade can also give the trees economic value and thus can in some cases serve to protect them from land conversion, charcoaling, etc.

Investigations are currently ongoing as to whether CITES would be an appropriate mechanism for frankincense; in any event, countries and species should be assessed on a case-by-case basis and all impacts should be carefully considered.

Frankincense is a single word used to describe a diverse set of resins that are chemically, ecologically, socially, politically, culturally, and economically distinct. It is difficult to make universal statements about frankincense or its supply chains, as each species should be considered separately to fully understand the context of its production.

Although many of these species face a variety of sustainability challenges, trade plays an important role in preserving them, and there are real opportunities and solutions to ensure ethical, sustainable supply chains for these unique trees and the communities that live with and manage them. Regardless of whether the trees are owned individually, communally or government controlled, a strong, fair and ethical community-supplier-buyer relationship is the key to sustainability.

If nothing else, the aim of this article is to encourage all of us outside the countries where frankincense trees grow, and who profit from, buy, use and enjoy these aromatic ancient resins to educate ourselves and pay far more attention to how the resin is harvested, how it reached our hands and who benefited. Purchasers all along the value chain need to ensure maximum direct support to all those who own and rightfully harvest the trees to have the means and incentive to take a long term view and to be able to protect and regenerate these precious and extraordinary trees and their gift to us.

1. Bakhtiari S, Nematzade F, Hakemi-Vala M, Talebi G. Phenotypic Investigation of the Antimicrobial Effect of Organic and Hydro-Alcoholic Extracts of Boswellia serrata on Oral Microbiota. Front Dent. 2020. doi:10.18502/fid.v16i5.2287
2. Kumar R, Kumar R, Singh S, Saksena A, Pal R, Jaiswal R. Effect of Boswellia serrata extract on acute inflammatory parameters and tumor necrosis factor-α in complete Freund’s adjuvant-induced animal model of rheumatoid arthritis. International Journal of Applied and Basic Medical Research. 2019;9(2):100. doi:10.4103/ijabmr.ijabmr_248_18
3. Schmiech M, Ulrich J, Lang S et al. 11-Keto-α-Boswellic Acid, a Novel Triterpenoid from Boswellia spp. with Chemotaxonomic Potential and Antitumor Activity against Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Cells. Molecules. 2021;26(2):366. doi:10.3390/molecules26020366
4. Arezoo Rajabian A. Genus Boswellia as a new candidate for neurodegenerative disorders. PubMed Central (PMC). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7229515/. Published 2021. Accessed October 11, 2021.

Recommended reading

• Al-Aamri, M. (2015). Sustainable harvesting of Frankincense trees in Oman. Saarbrücken: LAP Lambert Academic Publishing.
• Bongers, F., Groenendijk, P., Bekele, T., Birhane, E., Damtew, A., Decuyper, M., … Zuidema, P. A. (2019). Frankincense in peril. Nature Sustainability, 2(7), 602. https://doi. org/10.1038/s41893-019-0322-2
• DeCarlo, A., & Ali, S. (2014). Sustainable Sourcing of Phytochemicals as a Development Tool: The Case of Somaliland’s Frankincense Industry. Policy Innovations.
• DeCarlo, A., Dosoky, N. S., Satyal, P., Sorensen, A., & Setzer, W. N. (2019). The Essential Oils of the Burseraceae. In S. Malik (Ed.), Essential Oil Research: Trends in Biosynthesis, Analytics, Industrial Applications and Biotechnological Production (pp. 61–145). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-16546-8_4
• Eslamieh, J. (2017). Cultivation of Boswellia (Second edition; N/A, Ed.). Phoenix, AZ: a book’s mind.
• Frankincense and Myrrh. A Study of the Arabian Incense Trade. 1981. Groom, Nigel: Published by London, New York: Longman, Librairie du Liban.
• Groenendijk, P., Eshete, A., Sterck, F. J., Zuidema, P. A., & Bongers, F. (2012). Limitations to sustainable frankincense production: Blocked regeneration, high adult mortality and declining populations. Journal of Applied Ecology, 49(1), 164–173. https:// doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02078.x
• Hull, B. Z. (2008). Frankincense, Myrrh, and Spices: The Oldest Global Supply Chain? Journal of Macromarketing, 28(3), 275–288. https://doi.org/10.1177/0276146708320446
• Hostanska K, Daum G, Saller R. Anticancer Res. 2002 Sep- Oct;22(5):2853-62. Cytostatic and apoptosis-inducing activity of boswellic acids toward malignant cell lines in vitro.
• Langenheim, J. H. (2003). Plant Resins: Chemistry, Evolution, Ecology, and Ethnobotany. Portland, Or: Timber Press, Incorporated.
• Lemenih, M., & Kassa, H. (2011). Management guide for sustainable production of frankincense: A manual for extension workers and companies managing dry forests for resin production and marketing. Retrieved from http://www.cifor.org/library/3477/ management-guide-for-sustainable-production-of-frankincense- a-manual-for-extension-workers-and-companies-managing-dry- forests-for-resin-production-and-marketing/

(As told to the author by Frank and Julia King-Ni-Vanuatu; Mélé Village, Efate Island, Vanuatu-July 2017)

Our story begins with two brothers Ben a farmer and Cassie a fisherman.  Each day Ben would rise early and work his crops in the forest, while his brother would fish when the tides allowed, and he would come and go with the water and bait and was often around the village during the day due to bad fishing or weather. One day Ben came home to find Cassie in bed with his wife and in a fit of rage killed his wife and his brother. He buried them in the earth behind his hut and went into a long state of depression so dark that he could not expose himself to the light nor could he sleep.

He had a dream that came during one of his long nights of restless sleep that a plant with heart shaped leaves spoke to him, and told him to get up and look for it in the forest behind his house where he buried his wife.

The next morning Ben got up and went looking for the plant and sure enough there it was sprouting branches that looked like the brown knuckles of his wife’s hands coming from the ground with green heart shaped veined leaves. It was the first time Ben had come out of his hut since the event and he began to have more dreams about the plant and seemed to sleep better and be more at ease just being around it.

The next night he dreamt that the plant told him that it was the spirit of his slain wife and that she forgave him for his rage and could help him with his heavy guilt, shame and lift the darkness that he was living with.

The plant told of how Ben should carve a board out of black wood to resemble her womb, and then of the plant with the heart shaped leaves, “pull up my feet and legs (roots) and grind them into the womb you will make out of dark wood and with a long, rounded piece of dead coral and some fresh rainwater until it forms a milky liquid that you should squeeze through coconut fibers and drink the liquid.

While you are drinking you will not think of me or think about sex and your wife, your sore muscles will be warmed by the drink and the pain will ease and I promise to keep you peaceful if you only remember to cut up my arms and hands at each joint and stick them into the earth to grow more and tell other men in the village how I make you feel and how to prepare me and how to grow more of me.”

And so, Ben did this…

He began to sleep well and went back to farming and told the men in the village about his dreams. They tried the drink together at night in the village hut and found that not only did it help them sleep, but it eased their sore muscles from working the forest gardens and waters all day. From then on Kava has been consumed and loved within the communities. That is the story of how Kava came to this Island and spread to the other islands.

The Medicinal plant Piper methysticum G. Forst is commonly referred to as Kava, ‘Awa, or Yaqona in Vanuatu, Hawaii, Fiji respectively. Kava relies on asexual propagation since it cannot produce a viable seed. After I heard and read about the various Kava origin stories, I wondered if the buried corpse of a woman was representative of the indigenous tribe’s explanation for how a plant could reproduce without a seed and why it made them feel at ease in body and mind.

The answer as with most things in the botanical world is not so simple and requires more research. It is a conversation better had in person for the ethnobotanical inquiry, preferably while in the Nakamal after a shell or two of Kava and certainly not via WhatsApp or Zoom.

The phytochemical research also continues, and volumes are dedicated to characterization and isolation still without complete agreement amongst analytical chemists. The plant that is thought to be the “Mother” of Piper methysticum G. Forst; Piper methysticum var. wichmannii is also an asexual or vegetative reproducer though it is physically much larger than the drinking varieties, grows more rapidly and is substituted intentionally and unintentionally for Noble or commonly consumed Varieties.

This plant is considered a spiritual and ceremonial plant in Vanuatu and typically has not been consumed for nakamal drinking but only used in ceremonies. On my last visit in 2017 I heard from several Ni Vanuatu that they were drinking “wild kava” P. methysticum var. wichmannii (‘wael kava’ in Bislama language). That they would drink from a plant normally reserved for spiritual and ceremonial practice is indicative of the strain on this plant in trade.

During my times visiting the islands with Frank and Julia King they began facilitating the transplanting of some Noble varieties on Efate from Pentecost and other island’s. This was because of various tropical storms, volcanic eruptions and cyclones damaging Kava crops specific to those islands (Efate, Pentecost and Ambrym in this case).

This left the islanders unable to work the crop with many other life preserving activities taking precedent, such as replanting food gardens, clearing debris and building water storage. The fresh kava trade between islands for drinking has extended into selling young shoots for cultivation.

For much of the known history of Kava dating back to the works recorded by early Botanist J.G. Forester who travelled on Captain Cook’s expeditions around the pacific Islands in 1777 each Island cultivated, harvested and traded varieties that were endemic to that Island with varieties such as Borogu and Borogu Temit predominant on Pentecost and varieties such as Pia being more predominant on Tanna.

There are 16 known folk cultivars of Kava that have been identified on Pentecost and about the same on Tanna but the reader must also consider the linguistic diversity of Vanuatu and the fact that there are over 20 different Islands that have cultivated Kava for centuries in a concentrated geographic area. There are 105 languages spoken in the archipelago of Vanuatu (the most of any Country by population) and cultivars are recorded in as many languages. The gathering and recording of this information have been long and laborious and a debt of gratitude is due to Dr. Vincent Lebot for his work (1,3).

As efforts to increase diversity and inclusion increase, they extend to the plants in addition to the people. Of interesting note here; the trip in 2017 was the first time I had seen Women in Nakamals and drinking Kava in public. Custom or “Kastom” a Bislama/Pigin word for culture, including religion, economics, art and magic, has not allowed native Vanuatu women to harvest, process or drink Kava with the exception of masticating rootstock on some occasions for ceremony.

Despite this strict adherence to Custom in conversations with locals on different islands, it is clear that some women do drink Kava regularly, they are just doing so in hiding. Now, attitudes are changing and the women I spoke with said for the better.

The Kava Origin story above is just one of many stories on the origin of Kava and I encourage the reader to find more information freely available online concerning this subject, or better yet, travel to any Kava bearing island in the South Pacific and ask for yourself. They will be happy to share their information with you and it’s a great thing to chat about after a shell or two.

Kava grows in some of the most beautiful tropical paradise locations known, Fiji, New Guinea, Tonga, Samoa, Hawaii, New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea, The Cook and Solomon Islands and Vanuatu among the jewels in this pacific treasure chest. This plant perhaps more than any other I’ve encountered represents the human, plant coevolutionary process in the most sublime of ways. It is a plant that prepared properly, from the correct species, relieves anxiety and opens certain areas of perception and the plant must be reproduced by humans.

It grows naturally where rainfall is plentiful (average 2,000 mm/yr). Ideal growing conditions are 21–35 °C and 70–100% relative humidity. Too much sunlight is harmful, especially in early growth. The beverage is prepared in commercial nakamals and villages using a mechanical grinder, most often a manual hand crank meat grinder.

The ground roots are then put into a mesh cloth, though one time in Mele village I helped prepare some of that night’s Kava and we used a pair of men’s mesh football shorts as a strainer (they were clean!), proving that necessity is the mother of invention. In the USA Kava is regulated as a dietary supplement and dried lateral root  stock in a powdered form and various extracts are available.

I do take an extract of Kava from time to time and there’s a slight feeling of warmth, an ease in tension without cognitive inhibition, this is more pronounced in the water extracted dried root preparations than from capsules or extracts. To emphasize the difference for this subject; when drinking fresh kava on Vanuatu, I have thought to be able to see the vacuoles opening and closing on the underside of plant leaves, breathing in CO2 and out oxygen molecules, so relaxed and calm amongst natives yet over 8,000 miles from my home on a dot of land in the South Pacific.

The experience of drinking fresh kava on the islands is not easily reproduced through even the best of Dried Kava preparations or extracts. The word Kava is thought to be from Tongan language meaning ‘bitter’ and in Hawaii it is ‘ava’, also meaning bitter as it is so indicated in almost all the languages that refer to this beverage (2). It’s not a flavor that one savors.

Spit troughs are common at the Nakamals in Vanuatu and there’s always some coconut meat, paw-paw (Papaya), or pineapple to cleanse the bitterness from the palate after knocking back a shell of fresh Kava. It is also a type of “prayer offering” to spit and cough after consuming and ask the kava spirits for good fortune. I am grateful to have access to Kava as we do in the US and feel for my fellow herbal enthusiasts in the UK that cannot so freely enjoy this plant.

In 2001 concerns about Kava’s safety were raised by European media reports of liver toxicity involving the use of Kava.

Then in 2002 the Office of Dietary Supplements issued this statement: “On March 25, 2002, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued an advisory notifying consumers that kava-containing dietary supplements may be associated with severe liver injury.

The FDA reported that kava-containing products have been associated with liver-related injuries, including hepatitis, cirrhosis, and liver failure, in over 25 reports of adverse events in other countries. In the U.S., FDA received a report of a previously healthy young female who required liver transplantation, as well as several reports of liver-related injuries.” (8).

Though not “banned” in the US many companies subsequently stopped selling Kava and products and those that remained in the market were mandated to contain a detailed label warning relating to potential liver toxicity. Some researchers believe that extraction using solvents other than water create chemistries not found in traditional water extracts and these non-traditional extraction processes remove glutathione. This is a powerful antioxidant that the liver and plants produce to protect from peroxide and other free radical induced damage (7).

More research is needed in this area though The World Health Organization in it’s 2007 report on the safety and efficacy of Kava noted: “2.1.3. Products from water-based suspensions and further synthetic preparations should be developed and tested in clinical trials and consideration given to using these in preference to acetonic and ethanolic extracts.” (9).

Of interesting note are the lack of studies using water extracts of the peeled roots and rhizomes, to evaluate the safety of traditional preparation methods. The dangerous preparations recommended for the removal from the market in the UK and other countries were based on the evaluation of acetone and ethanol extracts, that did not respect or adhere to traditional extraction methods. This is despite WHO recommending studying water based traditional beverages.

One effort in the right direction was initiated in a study conducted in 2009 called The Kava Anxiety Depression Spectrum Study (KADSS). This was a 3-week placebo-controlled, double-blind, cross-over trial involving 60 adult participants (18–65) with elevated stable anxiety and varying levels of depressive symptoms. (4)

It is one of the only studies we are aware of using an aqueous extract of Kava. In the study the researchers from Queensland University in Brisbane, Australia and School of Health, University of New England, Armidale, Australia concluded in their summary:

“The study demonstrated that an aqueous extract of Kava was a safe and efficacious anxiolytic in participants with elevated, stable generalized anxiety and may also have antidepressant effects.

In accordance with our results, aqueous preparations of Kava may tentatively be recommended for intermittent or short-term use in people with generalized anxiety. In cases of regular use, liver function tests and clinical examinations should be periodically conducted, and dosages should not exceed 250 mg of kavalactones per day. Kava should preferably not be consumed with alcohol, benzodiazepines, or anticonvulsants.

This current study—and research that follows—may encourage the reassessment of Kava as a first-line treatment of anxiety. Such a decision would provide a significant expansion of viable treatment options for people with acute anxiety. It is necessary to continue more work in this area with aqueous extracts if we are to uncover the evidence contained in traditional preparations.”

One of the practical limitations of the study is the lack of preparations commonly available for aqueous extracts of Kava. The majority of preparations are Ethanolic Tinctures or straight powder/dried roots of Kava. It is however landmark in its efforts to approximate a traditional beverage, which to date had not previously been accomplished.

A notable 8-week randomized, double-blind multi-center placebo controlled clinical trial in 129 out-patients was conducted in 2003 using a 95% ethanolic extract of 400mg kava standardized to contain 30% kavapyrones at an average dose of 120mg (5). The study concluded that the preparation was well tolerated and as effective as Buspirone and Opipramol in the acute treatment of out-patients suffering from generalized anxiety disorder (GAD).

This study is encouraging for the types of preparations that are available in areas where commerce on extracts is allowed. More research on the solvent and aqueous preparations is needed and would hopefully lead to the development of safe, evidenced based therapeutics which also align with traditional preparations of the plant.

The first time I gave a native Pentecost islander a taste of an Ethanolic extract made from their harvests the reaction was one of amazement, a bit of worry and a bit of disbelief that it was actually Kava as they whooped out a loud “Kava Strongfala hafkrangke!!!” in Bislama, translating to “Crazy Strong Kava!!!”.

On my last trip to Vanuatu, I had the ultimate good grace to travel there with my son Cameron who was 22 at the time and studying Sustainable Tourism and Fisheries Biology at Colorado State University in Fort Collins, CO. One of the goals was to see some Kava “gardens” as they call them on the Island of Ambrym and for Cam to see firsthand the results of a study he had read for a fisheries class investigating the impact of commercial fishing and coral bleaching on Efate island (6).

We waited at the Port Vila International Airport for an 8 seat small engine flight to Ambrym Island with the customary live chicken in tow that I had become accustomed to on island visits with Frank. When we walked out to load the plane, Cam was asked to sit in the Co-Pilot seat up front as the Pilot needed proper weight distribution and he was about the same height and weight as our pilot, a nice young Fijian man about Cam’s age. The islands appeared and disappeared into the clouds amidst a turquoise coral backdrop with nothing but pelagic pacific waters as far as one could see on this thankfully clear day.

We landed safely coming into the Ulei Airport, a small grass landing strip emerging out of the palms with a brick building containing a latrine. I hugged Cam a little extra tightly in gratitude once we were taxing in and also marveled at the thought of the original islanders making that trek across treacherous waters in a hand hewn outrigger canoes.

We met the Chief of the village (Aram) that was farming the Kava who also ran a small shop with essentials that came in with the Kava trade. Aram was carrying a rifle which was something I had never seen on the islands before but was assured it was only to hunt fruit bats or Flying Foxes in the local language.

Such is life in the bush, but I would later learn that the rifle was in fact for our protection since a neighboring tribe had gotten word of this one’s success in trade with Kava to pharmaceutical companies and was making threats. The chief confided to me that his brother was sick with “stomach cancer” and it was putting a strain on harvesting and planting Kava since he was responsible for a small crew and becoming unable to work.

I immediately went to work scouring the landscape for plants I may recognize that may be beneficial and asked what he was doing for food and medicine. Later during that trip while hiking to the active Volcano (Benbow) as we made our way through the forested part of the Lahar, I spotted two species of fungi that surprised and delighted me: a Ganoderma species and Coriolus versicolor.

I made a mental note of their location, took some pictures, wrote a note in my journal but did not take any of them as I only wanted to ask the chief if he knew about them or if there was any use of them known to his tribe. Our Volcano guide from the village; Solomon had not known about them and said they don’t eat any of those since they don’t know if they are poisonous or not.

I showed the chief the photos who also had no experience with them when we returned to the village the next day told him how to prepare the fruiting bodies of those fungi (The Mushroom ‘caps’) if he felt inclined by making a decoction for his brother to drink for his stomach and vitality. He was grateful for my time and sharing and promised strong kava when we returned to the village nakamal that night to drink.

This exchange of knowledge and caring was facilitated through the business of botanicals and the plants themselves and is an unspoken language of unity that compels one to act with ethics and compassion. The plants take you on an amazing journey and the road maps for proper engagement can be found in the language of cultural tradition, the plants themselves, and the soil web connection that is emerging as the center of it all, facilitating a community of interconnectedness and interdependence.

1. Applequist, Wendy L.; Lebot, Vincent (25 April 2006). “Validation of Piper methysticum G. Forst var. wichmannii (Piperaceae)”. Novon: A Journal for Botanical Nomenclature. 16 (1): 3–4. doi:10.3417/1055-3177(2006)16[3:VOPMVW]2.0.CO;2
2. http://wehewehe.org/gsdl2.85/cgi-bin/hdict?a=d&d=D1669
3. Kava: The Pacific Drug, Vincent Lebot, Mark Merlin; Lamont Lindstrom. Copyright Date: 1992. Published by: Yale University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt211qwxb Pages: 256
4. Sarris J, Kavanagh DJ, Adams J, Bone K, Byrne G. Kava Anxiety Depression Spectrum Study (KADSS): a mixed methods RCT using an aqueous extract of Piper methysticum G. Forst. Complement Ther Med. 2009 Jun;17(3):176-8. doi: 10.1016/j.ctim.2009.01.001. Epub 2009 Feb 7. PMID: 19398072.
5. Boerner RJ, Sommer H, Berger W, Kuhn U, Schmidt U, Mannel M. Kava-Kava extract LI 150 is as effective as Opipramol and Buspirone in Generalised Anxiety Disorder–an 8-week randomized, double-blind multi-centre clinical trial in 129 out-patients. Phytomedicine. 2003;10 Suppl 4:38-49. doi: 10.1078/1433-187x-00309. PMID: 12807341.
6. https://www.icriforum.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/Pacific-Coral-Reefs-2011.pdf
7. Peter A. Whitton, Andrew Lau, Alicia Salisbury, Julie Whitehouse, Christine S. Evans: Kava lactones and the kava-kava controversy, Phytochemistry, Volume 64, Issue 3, 2003, Pages 673-679, ISSN 0031-9422, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9422(03)00381-9.
8. https://ods.od.nih.gov/HealthInformation/kava.aspx
9. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/43630/9789241595261_eng.pdf

In the last decade I have been the director of United Plant Savers. With boots on the ground I have met with landowners, diggers, dealers, growers, suppliers and herbal formulators, so my experience comes from a humble perspective and my inquisitive nature. False Unicorn root is the most valuable root for a digger to sell along with wild American ginseng.

The difference is that ginseng is a plant that people have been planting the seeds of for many decades. It’s a plant that has been tended by rural people for generations to ensure its future. Only a few dedicated growers of native plants have tried to germinate false Unicorn root, and its future is in serious decline.

The herb trade in the US is completely unregulated and very much an underground secretive trade. It’s important to know that we have little data on what is going on except for the prices advertised on digger and dealer pages on Facebook and prices of herbal formulas that are being sold online.

Current price for dried root on Etsy (2021) is 40.00 dollars for one gram, or 161.00 dollars for 4 oz (butterfly express) that amounts to around 2,500.00 a pound, and lastly an 8 oz tincture sells for 100.00 dollars (Vita Living). A digger would likely get around 100/200 dollars a pound, and that is roughly around 75 plants or many more depending on the size and if the roots are dried. The roots themselves are like a small carrot and lose around 1/3 of their weight when dried.

United Plant Savers publishes the Journal of Medicinal Plant Conservation, and on our website the Journal, along with all kinds of resources are there for free to download and explore. Dalene Barton-Schuster, CH. Doula wrote an article “Saving a Sacred Fertility Herb, False Unicorn Root.” In this article, she discusses the medicinal properties of false unicorn and within that framework she also suggests similar herbs such as tribulus (Tribulus terrestris), vitex or chaste tree berry (Vitex agnus-castus) and dong quai (Angelica sinensis).

There are some examples of fertility herbs with similar actions to false Unicorn aiding in the increase in estrogen and helping with fertility. As for aiding in prevention of recurrent miscarriage, partridge berry (Mitchella repens) is a great alternative.” United Plant Savers promotes herbalists to consider using analogues to “At-Risk” plants when possible. On our website is a wonderful list of analogues provided by Herbalist Jane Bothwell.

I often try to convey that there is a bounty of herbs that are not “At-Risk” and that companies can quickly reformulate, but once a plant is in decline and especially when its habitat is diminishing, nature cannot so easily reformulate. Certain plants can take decades to repopulate, and, in some cases, they are dependent on relationships we don’t even understand or know how to replicate.

United Plant Savers created the “At-Risk” Tool, a simple list of questions based on five categories; the life cycle of the plant, the part that is harvested, the habitat, threats, and demand. These questions can help guide the user to determine for themselves the ethical impact on plant biodiversity. A critical aspect to herbalism is getting to know the plant, understanding where it grows, its life cycle and the part of the plant being harvested.

In Appalachia many of the herbs in trade are roots of long living perennial native plants that grow in only healthy forests. In Eastern Europe, many of the herbs in trade are leaves, berries and flowers, so there are different challenges from maintaining healthy ecosystems to sustaining healthy harvesting of plant populations.

There are also social implications regarding who is harvesting the plants and how they are treated and compensated. These are all important questions to ask suppliers and herbal product companies when making informed decisions.

Ecological herbalism is an awakening to the deep connection between the health of the planet and human health. I cringe at the thought of plants in peril in an herbal formula, and I am also in awe at the amazing diversity of plants that support women’s health, so choose wisely.

Another plant that I strongly discourage for use in herbal formulas is trillium. This woodland spring ephemeral, also known as beth root, is a slow growing spring ephemeral that takes decades to establish. Its seed produces what is called an elaisome, which is a fatty white substance that attracts ants that then disperse the seeds. It can take two years before this seed might germinate, and when the bulb is harvested, that plant’s life is over. Each bulb harvested could be a plant that has lived in the forest for 20-30 years.

There is more to this story. There are 43 species of trillium worldwide, with 38 species in N. America and 5 found in Asia. Trilliums are often dug in early spring before they flower as they have distinctive three leaves. The epicenter of diversity is found in southern Appalachia where the most digging takes place. Many of these species are endangered and face all kinds of pressures such as deer predation, loss of habitat and increase in invasive species.

I wrote an article on “How we protect Trillium” that details the diversity of trilliums in N. America, and I worked on a committee with the IUCN on red listing the N. American Trillium species. The IUCN has just started the process over the two years to evaluate medicinal plants in N. America, which is good news but also frustrating that this important work is still lingering and underfunded. As I have mentioned, the herb trade in the US is very secretive.

Diggers are often on private and public lands, so they want to remain anonymous, and dealers are often trading cash or drugs for plants, so it is challenging to ensure that the correct plant is being harvested and/or harvested in a sustainable way and that people who are harvesting are also paid and treated fairly and that private land and public lands are being respected. There are no regulations in the underground plant trade of Appalachia, and in general the United States is very much a plant blind society that dedicates very few resources to the study or protection of plants.

Information we have on plant populations is often decades outdated if we have data at all. Certainly, trilliums could be cultivated for herbal formulas, but currently all trilliums in the herbal supply chain are wild harvested. A very interesting article in the last journal covers efforts in Pakistan to grow the native Trillium govanianum due to overharvesting pressure. United Plant Savers takes a strong stand on trilliums being removed from herbal products unless they come from a cultivated source.

Black cohosh according to the 2019 market report produced by the American Botanical Council was number 15 on the list of the topmost traded herbs generating 28,078,996.24 dollars in sales and its almost all wild harvested. The issue with black cohosh beyond the sustainability of tons of root being harvested each year is that there are several similar species and adulteration in herbal products is an issue.

Therefore a few companies have dropped cohosh from its product or have switched to growing black cohosh since it can be propagated to ensure that that the roots are indeed black cohosh. In our Annual Journal we published an article on the look alike cohoshes and a simple guide for how to distinguish these species.

United Plant Savers strongly encourages conservation through cultivation, and therefore we launched the forest grown program to support forest farmers of botanicals. The FGV program provides important growing and life cycle information on five plants: ginseng, goldenseal, cohosh, bloodroot, and ramps. We hope to expand this program to other native forest herbs that we have solid information on how to cultivate such as Solomon’s seal, and wild yam.

Women’s herbs of Appalachia are a pharmacopeia of phyto rich alkaloids and saponins that reduce inflammation and support the female reproductive system through the many stages of life. These roots are understudied in their potential and undervalued in how the forests are managed.

This article has not covered the in-depth use of these plants in herbal practice, but that information is abundant on many websites and books. What is lacking is balancing that information with transparency in the supply chain and the ecological understanding of what these plants need from us to survive the pressures of today’s rapidly growing marketplace. These are challenging times, and as herbalists we must advocate and speak for the herbs as an integral part of our practice.

We must ask difficult questions about the supply chain and try to understand the reproductive challenges for plants to survive. As we seek support from plants to help us navigate the challenges of women’s health, we must find ways we can reciprocate this gift.

I encourage you to sign-up to plantsavers.org and to take advantage of our online International Herb Symposium learning platform with over 100 classes and a full 18 months to enjoy them. Your membership and enrollment in the International Herb Symposium not only elevate the work of United Plant Savers it offers the opportunity to deepen your knowledge of the herbal realities of the plant kingdom.

• Growing False Unicorn: https://unitedplantsavers.org/184-false-unicorn-cultivation/
• How we protect trillium: https://unitedplantsavers.org/how-we-protect-trillium/
• Cohosh look-alikes: https://unitedplantsavers.org/distinguishing-black-cohosh-from-look-alikes/
• At Risk tool: https://unitedplantsavers.org/species-at-risk-assessment-tool/
• Saving a Sacred Fertility Herb: https://unitedplantsavers.org/saving-a-sacred-fertility-herb-false-unicorn-root/
• Forest Grown Resources: https://unitedplantsavers.org/fgv/
• ABC 2019 market report: https://www.herbalgram.org/media/15608/hg127-hmr.pdf
• IUCN working on assessments: https://unitedplantsavers.org/conservation-of-north-american-medicinal-plants-begins-with-comprehensive-status-assessment/